Buddhist ethics


Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. In Buddhism, ethics or morality are understood by the term śīla or sīla. Śīla is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is a code of conduct that emulates a natural inborn nature that embraces a commitment to harmony, equanimity, and self-regulation, primarily motivated by nonviolence or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described as virtue, moral discipline uprightness and precept, skillful conduct. Sīla is one of the three practices foundational to Buddhism and the non-sectarian Vipassana movement; sīla, ''samādhi, and paññā. It is included within the Theravadin foundations of sīla, dāna, and bhavana. It is also the second pāramitā in Mahayana Buddhism.
Sīla is the wholehearted commitment to what is wholesome that grows with experience of practice. In contrast to the English word "morality", Sīla is a resolve to connect with what is believed to be our innate ethical compass. It is an intentional ethical behaviour that is refined and clarified through walking the path toward liberation. Within some traditions, the true adversary is our ignorance, our clinging to beliefs, complexes and our misguided perceptions. As such, behavior is not viewed as good or evil but as skillful or unskillful.
Two aspects of sīla are essential to the training: right "performance", and right "avoidance". Honoring the precepts of sīla'' is considered a "great gift" to others because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It means that the practitioner poses no threat to anothers life, family, rights, well-being or property.
Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of Buddhist scriptures and the use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies to justify claims about the nature of Buddhist ethics. While many commonalities exist, there are differences between major Buddhist schools Theravada, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana, and Navayana in regards to texts, emphasis, practices, and ethical outlook.

Foundations

The universal source for Buddhist ethics are the Three Jewels of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The Buddha is seen as the originator of liberating knowledge and hence is the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's path and the truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones who practice the Dharma and have attained some knowledge, and can thus provide guidance and preserve the teachings. Having proper understanding of the teachings is vital for proper ethical conduct. The Buddha taught that right view, also referred to as right intention and right action, was a necessary prerequisite for right conduct.

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are at the foundation of Buddhist ethics, particularly in Theravada, and include:
  • dukkha is an innate characteristic of existence with each rebirth;
  • samudaya of this dukkha is the "craving, desire or attachment";
  • nirodha of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire, and attachment";
  • magga is the means to end this dukkha.
The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics—the need for liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with suffering. Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead to liberation. Cravings may be foregone by following the Noble Eightfold Path taught by the Buddha, which includes the ethical elements of right speech, right action and right livelihood. From the point of view of the Four Noble Truths, an action is seen as ethical if it is conductive to the elimination of dukkha. Understanding the truth of dukkha in life allows one to analyze the factors for its arising, that is craving, and allows us to feel compassion and empathy for others. By contemplating dukkha as a shared condition of all sentient beings, the practitioner cultivates compassion and seeks to alleviate suffering through wise and skillful action. From the Buddhist perspective, an act is also skillful if it promotes spiritual development by conforming to the Eightfold Path and leading to Nirvana.
Not all Buddhist traditions emphasize the Four Noble Truths equally. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the focus shifts beyond individual liberation toward universal awakening motivated by loving-kindness and compassion for all beings. Bodhisattvas are believed to work tirelessly for the liberation of all through the Bodhisattva path. Central to this path are the Six Pāramitās: Dāna, Śīla, Kṣānti, Vīrya, Dhyāna, and Prajñā. Mahāyāna also emphasizes key concepts such as emptiness, interdependence, Buddha-nature, and skillful means. Core Mahāyāna texts include the Lotus Sūtra, Heart Sūtra, Diamond Sūtra, and Avataṃsaka Sūtra.

Karma and rebirth

The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of karma, often understood to involve rebirth. Karma literally means "action" and refers to intentional actions. Karma is not fate or supernatural but simply cause and effect, and past karma can be changed by present action including the practice of the eightfold path.
The Buddha is recorded to have stated that right view consisted in believing that : there is fruit and ripening of deeds well done or ill done': what one does matters and has an effect on one's future; 'there is this world, there is a world beyond': this world is not unreal, and one goes on to another world after death". Karma may affect the rebirth of beings and their habits in their next life, though some modern scholars believe Karma can be understood independently of metaphysical doctrines like rebirth.
The core of karma is the mental intention, and hence the Buddha stated "It is intention, O monks, that I call karma; having willed one acts through body, speech, or mind". Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma, but having hurtful thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as conditioning future actions and circumstances – the fruit of one's present actions, including the condition and place of the actor's future life circumstances. One's past actions are said to mold one's consciousness and to leave seeds which later ripen in the next life. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle, though one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds.
The root or essence that is the foundation of one's intention is what conditions an action to be skillful or unskillful. There are three good roots and three negative roots. Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "merit" and obtaining merit is an important goal of lay Buddhist practice. The early Buddhist texts mention three 'bases for effecting karmic fruitfulness' : giving, moral virtue and meditation. One's state of mind while performing good actions is seen as more important than the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is seen as the most meritorious "field of merit". Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results, though one's regret and attempts to make up for it can ameliorate these results.

Precepts

The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is The Five Precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" are not commands but a set of voluntary commitments or guidelines, to help one live a life in which one is happy, without worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent suffering and to weaken the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral instructions which the Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as pertains to sexual conduct introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of another person if it involves uncommitted relationship. When one "goes for refuge" to the Buddha's teachings one formally takes the five precepts, which are:
  1. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;
  2. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
  3. I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
  4. I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
  5. I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which are the basis for heedlessness.
Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments. Keeping each precept is said to develop its opposite positive virtue. Abstaining from killing for example develops kindness and compassion, while abstaining from stealing develops non-attachment, honesty and trustworthiness.
The precepts have been connected with utilitarianism, and deontology and virtue approaches to ethics. They have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-harming. The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others. Compassion and a belief in karma form the foundation of the precepts.
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment, suicide, abortion and euthanasia. The second precept prohibits theft. The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip. The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means. Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol, and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. In practice however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries. Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive. In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.
There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are:

  1. "I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times."
  2. "I accept the training rule to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
  3. "I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."
Novice-monks use the ten precepts while fully ordained Buddhist monks also have a larger set of monastic precepts, called the Prātimokṣa. Monks are supposed to be celibate and are also traditionally not allowed to touch money. The rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns is outlined in the Vinaya. The precise content of the scriptures on vinaya differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to the vinaya.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another common set of moral guidelines are the Bodhisattva vows and the Bodhisattva Precepts or the "Ten Great Precepts". The Bodhisattva Precepts which is derived from the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra include the Five precepts with some other additions such as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist above and beyond the existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts. The Brahmajala Sutra also includes a list of 48 minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of weapons, teaching for the sake of profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non Mahayana Dharma. These precepts have no parallel in Theravāda Buddhism.