Duḥkha

Duḥkha "suffering", "pain", "unease", or "unsatisfactoriness", is an important concept in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Its meaning is context-dependent: it may refer more specifically to the "unsatisfactoriness" or "unease" of craving for and grasping after transient 'things', or expecting pleasure from them while ignorant of this transientness. In Buddhism, dukkha is part of the first of the Four Noble Truths and one of the three marks of existence. The term also appears in scriptures of Hinduism, such as the Upanishads, in discussions of moksha.
While the term dukkha has often been derived from the prefix du- and the root kha, meaning a badly fitting axle-hole of a cart or chariot giving "a very bumpy ride", it may actually be derived from duḥ-stha, a "dis-/ bad- + stand-", that is, "standing badly, unsteady", "unstable".

Etymology and meaning

Duḥkha is a term found in the Upanishads and Buddhist texts, meaning anything that is "uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult, causing pain or sadness". It is also a concept in Indian religions about the nature of transient phenomena which are innately "unpleasant", "suffering", "pain", "sorrow", "distress", "grief" or "misery". The term duḥkha does not have a one-word English translation, and embodies diverse aspects of unpleasant human experiences. It is often understood as the opposite of sukha, meaning lasting "happiness", "comfort" or "ease".

Etymology

Axle hole

The word has been explained in recent times as a derivation from Aryan terminology for an axle hole, referring to an axle hole which is not in the center and leads to a bumpy, uncomfortable ride. According to Winthrop Sargeant,
Joseph Goldstein, American vipassana teacher and writer, explains the etymology as follows:

'Standing unstable'

However, according to Monier Monier-Williams, the actual roots of the Pali term dukkha appear to be Sanskrit दुस्- + स्था. Regular phonological changes in the development of Sanskrit into the various Prakrits led to a shift from dus-sthā to duḥkha to dukkha.
Analayo concurs, stating that dukkha as derived from duḥ-sthā, "standing badly", "conveys nuances of "uneasiness" or of being "uncomfortable". Silk Road philologist Christopher I. Beckwith elaborates on this derivation. According to Beckwith:

Translation

The literal meaning of duḥkha, as used in a general sense is "suffering" or "painful". Its exact translation depends on the context. Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the aspects of dukh. Early Western translators of Buddhist texts typically translated the Pali term dukkha as "suffering". Later translators have emphasized that "suffering" is a too limited translation for the term duḥkha, and have preferred to either leave the term untranslated, or to clarify that translation with terms such as anxiety, distress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, not having what one wants, having what one does not want, etc. In the sequence "birth is painful", dukhka may be translated as "painful". When related to vedana, "feeling", dukkha is the opposite of sukkha, yet all feelings are dukkha in that they are impermanent, conditioned phenomena, which are unsatisfactory, incapable of providing lasting satisfaction. The term "unsatisfactoriness" then is often used to emphasize the unsatisfactoriness of "life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma".

Buddhism

Early Buddhism

Dukkha is one of the three marks of existence, namely anicca, dukkha, anatta.
Various suttas sum up how cognitive processes result in an aversion to unpleasant things and experiences, forming a corrupted process together with the complementary process of clinging to and craving for pleasure. This is expressed as saṃsāra, an ongoing process of death and rebirth, but also more pointly and non-metaphysically in the process-formula of the five skandhas:

Birth is dukkha, maturation is dukkha, aging is dukkha, illness is dukkha, death is dukkha;
Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are dukkha;
Association with the unbeloved is dukkha; separation from the loved is duḥkha;
Not getting what is wanted is dukkha.
In conclusion, the five clinging-aggregates are dukkha.

Early emphasis is on the importance of developing insight into the nature of dukkha, the corrupted process of clinging and craving which starts with sense-contact, as described in the skandhas, and how this corruption can be overcome, namely by training the mind culminating in the process of the jhanas. This is summarized in the teachings on the Four Noble Truths and other formulaic expressions of the Buddhist way to awakening.
Within the Buddhist suttas, dukkha has a broad meaning, and has also been specified in three categories:

Dukkha-dukkha, aversion to physical suffering this includes the physical and mental sufferings of birth, aging, illness, dying; distress due to what is not desirable.
Viparinama-dukkha, the frustration of disappearing happiness this is the duḥkha of pleasant or happy experiences changing to unpleasant when the causes and conditions that produced the pleasant experiences cease.
Sankhara-dukkha, the unsatisfactoriness of changing and impermanent "things" the incapability of conditioned things to give us lasting happiness. This includes "a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all existence, all forms of life, because all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance." On this level, the term indicates a lack of lasting satisfaction, or a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.
Chinese Buddhism

Chinese Buddhist tradition has been influenced by Taoism and Confucian theory that advocates that duhkha is associated to the theory of seven emotions of endogenous disease through the formation of the spirit of the po a term that relates to the Western psychological notion of ego or the theological reference to the human soul. This theory is expounded in the application of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and prevention of pain and suffering from illness, disease and ignorance.

Literal suffering and awakening

Awakening, that is, awakening to one's true mind of emptiness and compassion, does not necessarily end physical suffering. In the Buddhist tradition, suffering after awakening is often explained as the working-out or untangling of karma of one's previous present life.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, duḥkha encompasses many meanings such as the phenomenological senses of pain and grief, a deep-seated dissatisfaction with the limitations of worldly existence, and the devastation of impermanence.
In Hindu scriptures, the earliest Upaniads – the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad| and the Chandogya Upanishad| – in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism. In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word appears in the sense of "suffering, sorrow, distress", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman.
The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads. The term Duhkha also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, as well as in the Bhagavad Gita, all in the contexts of moksha and bhakti.
The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of Samkhya karika of the Samkhya school. The Samkhya school identifies three types of suffering. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali state that "for one who has discrimination, everything is suffering".
Some of the Hindu scripture verses referring to duhkha are:

Hindu scripture	Sanskrit	English
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad		While we are still here, we have come to know it. If you've not known it, great is your destruction. Those who have known it – they become immortal. As for the rest – only suffering awaits them.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad		When a man rightly sees, he sees no death, no sickness or distress. When a man rightly sees, he sees all, he wins all, completely.
Bhagavad Gita	duḥkheṣhv-anudvigna-manāḥ sukheṣhu vigata-spṛihaḥ vīta-rāga-bhaya-krodhaḥ sthita-dhīr munir uchyate	One whose mind remains undisturbed amidst misery, who does not crave for pleasure, and who is free from attachment, fear, and anger, is called a sage of steady wisdom.
Bhagavad Gita	mām upetya punar janma duḥkhālayam aśāśvatam nāpnuvanti mahātmānaḥ saṁsiddhiṁ paramāṁ gatāḥ	Reaching me, these great souls never again experience birth in this temporal abode of misery, for they have attained the ultimate perfection.

Jainism

Duḥkha is explained in the Tattvartha Sutra, an authoritative Jain scripture from the 2nd century.