Jainism
Jainism, also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion which teaches a path toward spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined non-violence to all living creatures. The tradition is spiritually guided by twenty-four ', supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience. The core of Jain philosophy is established on three ethical pillars: ', ', and '. While its ultimate spiritual goal is ', these ethical principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture.
Jain philosophy distinguishes itself through the doctrine of ', which asserts that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects; thus, no single viewpoint can claim absolute truth. This framework encourages intellectual humility and conflict resolution, contrasting with the "one-sided" views rejected by the tradition. Ethically, the vow of ' requires monks to renounce all property, while encouraging laypersons to limit their possessions and voluntarily limit their desires. Historically, the application of non-violence drove the Jain community away from agriculture and warfare toward trade and banking, where they became a dominant mercantile force in ancient and medieval India, supporting a vast network of temples, libraries, and charitable institutions.
The tradition views itself as eternal, with the guiding every cosmic time cycle. In the current cycle, the first ' was Rishabhanatha, credited in tradition with establishing civilized society. The 23rd ', Pārśvanātha, is dated by historians to the, making him likely the earliest historical figure of the tradition. The 24th and final ', Mahavira, was a contemporary of the Buddha and a central figure in the ' movement of Greater Magadha, which rejected the authority of the Vedas and established the current ascetic order.
Jainism has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas, residing mostly in India, with significant diaspora communities in North America, Europe, and East Asia. The community is divided into two major sub-traditions, the ' and ', which differ on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical texts, though they share the same core philosophy. Despite their small numbers, Jains have exerted a disproportionate influence on Indian culture, contributing significantly to the development of logic, art, architecture, and the legal and ethical frameworks of modern India. Major festivals include ' or ', ', ', and '.
Etymology
The name Jainism comes from ji, "to conquer," referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires, aiming to reach omniscience. Those few who accomplish this are called jina, "conqueror." Adherents are called jain or jaina, "follower of the conquerors," a term which replaced the older name nirgrantha, bondless, which was only used for ascetic wanderers.Jain Doctrine and Philosophy
''Ratnatraya'' (The Three Jewels)
Its salvational goal for ascetics is to reach moksha, while for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the three jewels : samyak darśana, right vision or faith in the Jain teachings or scriptures, more specifically the seven tattvas; samyak gyana, right knowledge and understanding of the Jain teachings, more specifically of self and non-self ; and samyak charitra, correct conduct, behavior consistent with these teachinngs and the five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation. The four jewels are called Moksha Marga.The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets of ', ', and , a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality.
Core Principles (The Vows)
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru, deva, doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:- Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings. This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.
- Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.
- Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.
- Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.
- Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.
''Ahimsa'' – non-violence
The principle of ahimsa is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".
Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.
The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".
However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.
''Aparigraha'' – non-attachment
The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.Metaphysics and Cosmology
Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul. It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world. Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth.Soul and karma
According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages. Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved through ratnatraya, the path of the three jewels, namely samyak darśana, correct faith in the Jain teachings; samyak gyana, correct knowledge and understanding of those teachings; and samyak charitra, correct conduct, behavior consistent with the five vows.Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes in karma, but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives of karma as a physical, material substance — subtle, invisible particles of matter that exist in the universe. These particles are drawn to the soul by its actions, thoughts, and words.
This "karmic dirt" then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss. This bondage of karma is the cause of the soul's entrapment in Saṃsāra and its repeated cycles of birth and death.