Aṅgulimāla
Aṅgulimāla is an important figure in Buddhism, particularly within the Theravāda tradition. Depicted as a ruthless brigand who completely transforms after a conversion to Buddhism, he is seen as the example par excellence of the redemptive power of the Buddha's teaching and the Buddha's skill as a teacher. Aṅgulimāla is seen by Buddhists as the "patron saint" of childbirth and is associated with fertility in South and Southeast Asia.
Aṅgulimāla's story can be found in numerous sources in Pāli, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. Aṅgulimāla is born Ahiṃsaka. He grows up as an intelligent young man in Sāvatthī, and during his studies becomes the favorite student of his teacher. However, out of jealousy, fellow students set him up against his teacher. In an attempt to get rid of Aṅgūlimāla, the teacher sends him on a deadly mission to find a thousand human fingers to complete his studies. Trying to accomplish this mission, Aṅgulimāla becomes a cruel brigand, killing many and causing entire villages to emigrate. Eventually, this causes the king Pasenadi, to send an army to catch the killer. Meanwhile, Aṅgulimāla's mother attempts to interfere, almost causing her to be killed by her son as well. The Buddha manages to prevent this, however, and uses his power and teachings to bring Aṅgulimāla to the right path. Aṅgulimāla becomes a follower of the Buddha, and to the surprise of the king and others, becomes a monk under his guidance. Villagers are still angry with Aṅgulimāla, but this is improved somewhat when Aṅgulimāla helps a mother with childbirth through an act of truth.
Scholars have theorized that Aṅgulimāla may have been part of a violent cult before his conversion. Indologist Richard Gombrich has suggested that he was a follower of an early form of Tantra, but this claim has been challenged by several scholars. Buddhists consider Aṅgulimāla a symbol of spiritual transformation, and his story a lesson that everyone can change their life for the better, even the least likely people. This inspired the official Buddhist prison chaplaincy in the UK to name their organization after him. Moreover, Aṅgulimāla's story is referred to in scholarly discussions of justice and rehabilitation, and is seen by theologian John Thompson as a good example of coping with moral injury and an ethics of care. Aṅgulimāla has been the subject of movies and literature, with a Thai movie of the same name choosing to depict him following the earliest sources, and the book The Buddha and the Terrorist by Satish Kumar adapting the story as a non-violent response to the Global War on Terror.
Textual sources and epigraphical findings
The story of Aṅgulimāla is most well known in the Theravāda tradition. Two texts in the early discourses in the Pāli language are concerned with Aṅgulimāla's initial encounter with the Buddha and his conversion, and are believed to present the oldest version of the story. The first is the Theragāthā, probably the oldest of the two, and the second is the Aṅgulimāla Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya. Both offer a short description of Aṅgulimāla's encounter with the Buddha, and do not mention much of the background information later incorporated into the story. Apart from the Pāli texts, the life of Aṅgulimāla is also described in Tibetan and Chinese texts which originate from Sanskrit. The Sanskrit collection called Saṃyuktāgama from the early Mūlasārvastivāda school, has been translated in two Chinese texts by the early Sarvāstivāda and Kāśyapīya schools and also contains versions of the story. A text translated in Chinese from the Sanskrit Ekottara Agāma by the Mahāsaṃghika school is also known. Furthermore, three other Chinese texts dealing with Aṅgulimāla have also been found, of unknown origin but different from the first three Chinese texts.Apart from these early texts, there are also later renderings, which appear in the commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya attributed to Buddhaghosa and the Theragāthā commentary attributed to Dhammapāla. The two commentaries do not appear to be independent of one another: it appears that Dhammapāla has copied or closely paraphrased Buddhaghosa, although adding explanation of some inconsistencies. The earliest accounts of Aṅgulimāla's life emphasize the fearless violence of Aṅgulimāla and, by contrast, the peacefulness of the Buddha. Later accounts attempt to include more detail and clarify anything that might not conform with Buddhist doctrine. For example, one problem that is likely to have raised questions is the sudden transformation from a killer to an enlightened disciplelater accounts try to explain this. Later accounts also include more miracles, however, and together with the many narrative details this tends to overshadow the main points of the story. The early Pāli discourses do not provide for any motive for Aṅgulimāla's actions, other than sheer cruelty. Later texts may represent attempts by later commentators to "rehabilitate" the character of Aṅgulimāla, making him appear as a fundamentally good human being entrapped by circumstance, rather than as a vicious killer. In addition to the discourses and verses, there are also Jātaka tales, the Milindapañhā, and parts of the monastic discipline that deal with Aṅgulimāla, as well as the later Mahāvaṃsa chronicle.
Later texts from other languages that relate Aṅgulimāla's life include the Avadāna text called Sataka, as well as a later collection of tales called Discourse on the Wise and the Fool, which exists in Tibetan and Chinese. There are also travel accounts of Chinese pilgrims that mention Aṅgulimāla briefly. In addition to descriptions of the life of Aṅgulimāla, there is a Mahāyāna discourse called the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, which Gautama Buddha addresses to Aṅgulimāla. This is one of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras, a group of discourses that deal with the Buddha Nature. There is another sūtra with the same name, referred to in Chinese texts, which was used to defend the Buddhist stance against alcoholic beverages. This text has not been found, however. Apart from textual evidence, early epigraphic evidence has also been found. One of the earliest reliefs that depicts Aṅgulimāla dates from approximately 3rd century BCE.
Story
Previous incarnations
The texts describe a previous incarnation before Aṅgulimāla met the Buddha Gautama. In this life, he was born as a man-eating king turned yaksha, in some texts called Saudāsa. Saudāsa develops an interest in consuming human flesh when he is served the flesh of a dead baby. When he asks for more, his subjects start to fear for their children's safety and he is driven from his own kingdom. Growing into a monster, Saudāsa meets a deity that promises Saudāsa can retrieve his status as king if he sacrifices one hundred other kings. Having killed 99 kings, a king called Sutasoma changes Saudāsa's mind and makes him a religious man, and he gives up all violence. The texts identify Sutasoma with a previous incarnation of the Buddha, and Saudāsa with a previous incarnation of Aṅgulimāla.According to the Ekottara Agāma, however, in a previous incarnation Aṅgulimāla is a crown prince, whose goodness and virtue irritate his enemies. When his enemies kill him, he takes a vow just before his death that he may avenge his death, and attain Nirvana in a future life under the guidance of a master. In this version, the killings by Aṅgulimāla's are therefore justified as a response to the evil done to him in a past life, and his victims receive the same treatment they once subjected Aṅgulimāla with.
Youth
In most texts, Aṅgulimāla is born in Sāvatthī, in the brahman caste of the Garga clan, his father Bhaggava being the chaplain of the king of Kosala, and his mother called Mantānī. According to commentarial texts, omens seen at the time of the child's birth indicate that the child is destined to become a brigand. As the father is interpreting the omens for the king, the king asks whether the child will be a lone brigand or a band leader. When Bhaggava replies that he will be a lone brigand, the king lets him live.Buddhaghosa relates that the father names the child Ahiṃsaka, meaning 'the harmless one'. This is derived from the word ahiṃsa, because no-one is hurt at his birth, despite the bad omens. The commentary by Dhammapāla states that he is initially named Hiṃsaka by the worried king, but that the name is later changed.
Having grown up, Ahiṃsaka is handsome, intelligent and well-behaved. His parents send him to Taxila to study under a well-known teacher. There he excels in his studies and becomes the teacher's favorite student, enjoying special privileges in his teacher's house. However, the other students grow jealous of Ahiṃsaka's speedy progress and seek to turn his master against him. To that end, they make it seem as though Ahiṃsaka has seduced the master's wife. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahiṃsaka directly, the teacher says that Ahiṃsaka's training as a true brahman is almost complete, but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a teacher and then he will grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demands a thousand fingers, each taken from a different human being, thinking that Aṅgulimāla will be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize. According to Buddhaghosa, Ahiṃsaka objects to this, saying he comes from a peaceful family, but eventually the teacher persuades him. But according to other versions, Ahiṃsaka does not protest against the teacher's command.
In another story version, the teacher's wife tries to seduce Ahiṃsaka. When the latter refuses her advances, she is spiteful and tells the teacher Ahiṃsaka has tried to seduce her. The story continues in the same way.