Ahimsa
is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.
is one of the cardinal virtues of Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also one of the central precepts of Hinduism and is the first of the five precepts of Buddhism. is inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself.
is also related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already investigated and refined the principles of
, the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in. About, Valluvar emphasized and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural. Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of in modern times was Mohandas K. Gandhi.
's precept that humans should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words, and thoughts. Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as modern scholars, disagree about what the principle of dictates when one is faced with war and other situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.
Etymology
The word —sometimes spelled —is derived from the Sanskrit root, meaning to strike; is injury or harm, while , its opposite, is non-harming or nonviolence.Historical Evolution
Reverence for can be found in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist canonical texts. Lord Parshvanatha is said to have preached as one of the four vows. No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as much as has Jainism.Pre-Vedic and Shramanic Roots Hypothesis
While the Rigveda is the oldest surviving text in India, many scholars argue that the specific ethical practice of ahimsa originated within the non-Vedic Sramana traditions before being absorbed into Brahmanism.Some scholars, such as P.R. Deshmukh, suggest that the roots of ahimsa and asceticism may date back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, citing the discovery of seals depicting figures in the kayotsarga posture common to Jain iconography.
Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst has proposed the "Greater Magadha" theory, arguing that the eastern Gangetic plain developed a distinct non-Vedic culture where concepts like Karma, rebirth, and ahimsa originated. According to this view, the Vedic priesthood later adopted these concepts as they expanded eastward. Similarly, the German Indologist Ludwig Alsdorf argued that ahimsa likely began not as a moral rule but as a "magico-ritualistic" taboo against killing or harming living beings, which was part of a pan-Indian or pre-Aryan heritage later refined into an ethical system by the Jains.
Evolution in the Vedic Tradition
The concept of ahimsa evolved gradually within the Vedic tradition. In the early Vedic period, animal sacrifice was a central component of ritual life. However, the concept transitioned from a ritualistic concern—avoiding injury to the sacrificer or the minute details of the ritual—to an internalized ethical virtue.By the late Vedic era, texts like the Chandogya Upanishad explicitly listed ahimsa as one of five essential virtues. The Yajurveda reflects this shifting ethos with prayers for universal peace, such as: "May all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".
Integration into Governance
The principle of ahimsa moved from personal asceticism to state policy under the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Following the Kalinga War, Ashoka renounced military conquest in favor of "conquest by Dharma". His Rock Edicts restricted animal slaughter, established medical care for animals, and promoted non-violence as a civic duty, embedding the Shramanic value of ahimsa into the political fabric of India.Hinduism
Ancient Vedic texts
as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts. The oldest scriptures indirectly mention. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of was increasingly refined and emphasized until became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era. The Yajur Veda dated to be between and, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".The term appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda, where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of "non-injury". The doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals, apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda, which may have been written in about. The Chandogya Upanishad includes ahimsa in its list of virtues.
John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest as an ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word in the sense familiar in Hinduism. It bars violence against "all creatures", and the practitioner of is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths. Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism. Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names, along with , , , and , as one of five essential virtues.
The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances:,,,,,,,,, and. According to Kaneda, the term is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.
The Epics
The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase , which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Anushasana Parva has the verse:अहिंसा परमो धर्मः तथाहिंसा परो दमः।
अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस्तपः।
अहिंसा परमो यज्ञः तथाहिंसा परं बलम्।
अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्।
अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of in Hinduism, and literally means:
is the highest, is the highest self-control,
is the greatest gift, is the best practice,
is the highest sacrifice, is the finest strength,
is the greatest friend, is the greatest happiness,
is the highest truth, and is the greatest teaching.
Some other examples where the phrase are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.
Self-defence, criminal law, and war
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.; War
The precepts of in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful. War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment. Children, women, and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.
; Self-defence
Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of, and Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker. is not meant to imply pacifism.
Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by, build principles similar to ideas of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa. According to this interpretation of in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.
; Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.
Other scholars conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional, and not cruel.