Sōtō
Sōtō Zen or the Sōtō school is the largest of the three traditional sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism. It is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. It emphasizes Shikantaza, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference.
The Japanese brand of the sect was imported in the 13th century by Dōgen Zenji, who studied Caodong Buddhism abroad in China. Dōgen is remembered today as the ancestor of Sōtō Zen in Japan along with Keizan Jōkin.
With about 14,000 temples, Sōtō is one of the largest Japanese Buddhist organizations. Sōtō Zen is now also popular in the West, and in 1996 priests of the Sōtō Zen tradition formed the Soto Zen Buddhist Association based in North America.
History
Chinese origins
The original Chinese version of Sōtō-shū, i.e. the Caodong-school was established by the Tang dynasty monk Dongshan Liangjie in the ninth century.One prevalent view is that the sect's name was originally formed by taking one character each from the names of Dongshan and his disciple Caoshan Benji, and was originally called Dongcao sect. However, to paraphrase the Dongshan Yulu, the sect's name denotes 'colleagues of the teachings above the caves ' who together follow the "black wind " and admire the masters of various sects.
Perhaps more significantly for the Japanese brand of this sect, Dōgen among others advocated the reinterpretation that the "Cao" represents not Caoshan, but rather "Huineng of Caoxi temple" ; Ch. 曹溪慧能). The branch that was founded by Caoshan died off, and Dōgen was a student of the other branch that survived in China.
A precursor to the sect is Shitou Xiqian, the attributed author of the poem Sandokai, which formed the basis of Song of the Precious Mirror Samadhi of Dongshan Liangjie and the teaching of the Five Ranks.
Kamakura (1185–1333)
Starting with Dōgen, a partial lineage chart is as follows:Dōgen
The Caodong-teachings were brought to Japan in 1227, when Dōgen returned to Japan after studying Ch'an in China and settled at Kennin-ji in Kyoto. Dōgen had received Dharma transmission from Tiantong Rujing at Qìngdé Temple, where Hongzhi Zhengjue once was abbot. Hongzhi's writings on "silent illumination" had greatly influenced Dōgen's own conception of shikantaza.Dōgen did return from China with various kōan anthologies and other texts, contributing to the transmission of the koan tradition to Japan. In the first works he wrote he emphasised the practice of zazen, which brought him into trouble at Kennin-ji:
In 1243 Dōgen founded Eihei-ji, one of the two head temples of Sōtō-shū today, choosing...
Daily routine was copied from Chinese practices, which went back to the Indian tradition:
Ejō
Dōgen was succeeded around 1236 by his disciple Koun Ejō, who originally was a member of the Daruma school of Nōnin, but joined Dōgen in 1229. Ejō started his Buddhist studies at Mount Hiei, the center of Tendai studies. Following his stay there he studied Pure Land Buddhism under Shōkū, whereafter he joined the Daruma school of Nōnin by then led by Kakuan., and later Dōgen's community in 1234.Ejō composed a journal in colloquial Japanese called the, or simply Zuimonki for short, recollecting conversations he had with Dōgen. The recorded conversations emphasize the primacy of an austere Zen Buddhism, and resisted efforts from outside to incorporate other practices such as building Buddhist statues, or erecting new temples, and contrast with a different journal, the, an apocryphal journal attributed to Gikai.
Gikai
A large group from the Daruma-school under the leadership of Ekan joined the Dogen-school in 1241, after severe conflicts with the Tendai and Rinzai schools. Among this group were Gikai, Gien and Giin, who were to become influential members of Dōgen's school.After the death of Ejō, a controversy called the sandai sōron occurred. In 1267 Ejō retired as Abbot of Eihei-ji, giving way to Gikai, who was already favored by Dogen. Gikai too originally was a member of the Daruma school, but joined Dōgen's school in 1241, together with a group from the Nōnin school led by Ekan. Gikai introduced esoteric elements into the practice:
Opposition arose, and in 1272 Ejō resumed the position of abbot. After his death in 1280, Gikai became abbot again, strengthened by the support of the military for magical practices. Opposition arose again, and Gikai was forced to leave Eihei-ji, and exiled to Kaga Province, Daijō-ji. He was succeeded by Gien, who was first trained in the Daruma-school of Nōnin. His supporters designated him as the third abbot, rejecting the legitimacy of Gikai.
Keizan
The second most important figure in Sōtō, Keizan, belonged to this dissident branch. Keizan received ordination from Ejō when he was, twelve years old, shortly before Ejō's death When he was seventeen he went on a pilgrimage for three years throughout Japan. During this period, he studied Rinzai, Shingon and Tendai. After returning to Daijō-ji, Keizan received dharma transmission from Gikai in 1294, and established Joman-ji. In 1303 Gikai appointed Keizan as abbot of Daijō-ji, a position he maintained until 1311.Keizan enlarged the Shingon-temple Yōkō-ji in Ishikawa prefecture, turning it into a Zen monastery in 1312. Thereafter he inherited the Shingon temple Shogaku-ji in 1322, renaming it Sōji-ji, which was recognized as an official monastery. In 1324 he put Gasan Jōseki in charge of Sojo-ji, and returned to Yōkō-ji. Yōko-ji was Keizan's main temple, but Sōji-ji thrived better, thanks to Gasan Jōseki
Though today Dōgen is referred as the founder of Sōtō, for a long period Sōtō history recognized several important ancestors, next to Dōgen. In 1877 the heads of the Sōtō community acknowledged Keizan for a brief period as the overall founder of the Sōtō sect.
Dogen is known as the "koso", where Keizan is known as the "taiso";
Sōtō centers
At the end of the Kamakura period, Dōgen's school centered around four centers, namely Eihei-ji, Daijo-ji monastery, and the temples Yoko-ji and Sōji-ji. Sōji-ji became the most influential center of the Dōgen school.Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573)
During the Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the shōgun. But Soto too spread out over Japan.Gasan and Sotetsu
and Meiho Sotetsu were Keizan's most prominent students.Gasan too started his Buddhist studies at mount Hiei. He became head of Soji-ji in 1324. Gasan adopted the Five Ranks of Tung-shan as a fit vehicle to explain the Mahayana teachings.
Sotetsu became head of Yoko-ji in 1325. Initially his influence soon grew. In 1337 Sotetsu was appointed as abbot of Daijo-ji.
Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868)
After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. The power of Buddhism decreased during the Tokugawa period. Buddhism had become a strong political and military force in Japan and was seen as a threat by the ruling clan. Measures were taken to control the Buddhist organisations, and to limit their power and influence. The temple hierarchy system was centralized and unified.Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen, a Chinese monk. The presence of these Chinese monks also influenced the existing Zen-schools, spreading new ideas about monastic discipline and the rules for dharma transmission.
The Sōtō school started to place a growing emphasis on textual authority. In 1615 the bakufu declared that "Eheiji's standards must be the rule for all Sōtō monks". In time this came to mean all the writings of Dōgen, which thereby became the normative source for the doctrines and organisation of the Sōtō school.
A key factor in this growing emphasis on Dogen was Manzan's appeal to change the rules for dharma transmission, based on arguments derived from the Shōbōgenzō. From its beginnings, Sōtō-shū has laid a strong emphasis on the right lineage and dharma transmission. In time, dharma transmission became synonymous with the transmission of temple ownership. When an abbot changed position, becoming abbot of another temple, he also had to discard his lineage and adopt the lineage of his new temple. This was changed by Manzan Dokahu, a Sōtō reformer, who:
Dōgen scholarship came to a central position in the Sōtō sect with the writings of Menzan Zuihō, who wrote over a hundred works, including many commentaries on Dōgen's major texts and analysis of his doctrines. Menzan promoted reforms of monastic regulations and practice, based on his reading of Dōgen.
Another reformation was implemented by Gentō Sokuchū, the 11th abbot of Eihei-ji, who tried to purify the Sōtō school, de-emphasizing the use of kōans. In the Middle Ages kōan study was widely practiced in the Sōtō school. Gentō Sokuchū started the elevation of Dōgen to the status he has nowadays, when he implemented new regulations, based on Dōgen's regulations.
This growing status of Dōgen as textual authority also posed a problem for the Sōtō school:
Meiji Restoration (1868–1912) and Imperial expansionism
During the Meiji period Japan abandoned its feudal system and opened up to Western modernism. Shinto became the state religion, and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. Rinzai and Sōtō Zen chose to adapt, with embarrassing consequences when Japanese nationalism was endorsed by the Zen institutions. War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.Within the Buddhist establishment the Western world was seen as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to. Parties within the Zen establishment sought to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity.
During this period a reappraisal of Dōgen started. The memory of Dōgen was used to ensure Eihei-ji's central place in the Sōtō organisation, and "to cement closer ties with lay people". In 1899 the first lay ordination ceremony was organized in Eihei-ji. Eihei-ji also promoted the study of Dōgen's works, especially the Shōbōgenzō, which changed the view of Dōgen in Sōtō's history. An image of Dōgen was created that suited the specific interests of Eihei-ji: