Academic degree
An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education. Academic degrees are commonly structured in levels, most often categorized as undergraduate and postgraduate degrees.
The most common undergraduate qualification is the bachelor's degree, although some educational systems also offer lower-level degrees such as the associate degree or the foundation degree. Postgraduate degrees include the engineer's degree, the master's degree, and the doctorate.
In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second and third class.
History
Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate
The doctorate first appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, Church Fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach. While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree, it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.
Today the terms "master", "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university, they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place.
The earliest doctoral degrees, law – Legum Doctor and medicine – Medicinæ Doctor ) reflected the historical separation of all higher university study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology, law, and medicine were then called "philosophy", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities.
George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in medieval Islamic madrasas in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities. Alfred Guillaume, Syed Farid al-Attas and Devin J. Stewart agree that there is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree. However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart finds that the ijazat al-ifta, license to teach Islamic law and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity.
The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine.
The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
Emergence of the bachelor's degree
In medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium and the quadrivium, together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously used to describe a squire to a knight. Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, "master", entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus.Evolution of the terminology of degrees
The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy, which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts. The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado",. The highest level was "Doctor".
Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities
In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain, Lambeth degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533, which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter, was granted limited degree awarding powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university until 1962. Following the Education Reform Act 1988, many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London, many of which are now effectively universities in their own right.
Academic dress
In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.Laws on granting and use of degrees
In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia, the United Kingdom and Israel. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws.Indicating earned degrees
Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title, post-nominal letters, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries.Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree.
For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish the Oxbridge MA from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees, 'Dunelm' for Durham University, 'Ebor' for the University of York and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter. The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin.
Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York ' and 'York ' or 'Newc ' and 'Newc are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.
Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in the US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science, MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy.