Kotlin


Kotlin is a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose high-level programming language with type inference. Kotlin is designed to interoperate fully with Java, and the JVM version of Kotlin's standard library depends on the Java Class Library,
but type inference allows its syntax to be more concise. Kotlin mainly targets the JVM, but also compiles to JavaScript or native code via LLVM. Language development costs are borne by JetBrains, while the Kotlin Foundation protects the Kotlin trademark.
On 7 May 2019, Google announced that the Kotlin programming language had become its preferred language for Android app developers. Since the release of Android Studio 3.0 in October 2017, Kotlin has been included as an alternative to the standard Java compiler. The Android Kotlin compiler emits Java 8 bytecode by default, but allows targeting Java 9 up to 24, for optimizing, or allows for more features; has bidirectional record class interoperability support for JVM, introduced in Java 16, considered stable as of Kotlin 1.5.
Kotlin has support for the web with Kotlin/JS, through an intermediate representation-based backend which has been declared stable since version 1.8, released December 2022. Kotlin/Native has been declared stable since version 1.9.20, released November 2023.
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History

Name

The name is derived from Kotlin Island, a Russian island in the Gulf of Finland, near Saint Petersburg. Andrey Breslav, Kotlin's former lead designer, mentioned that the team decided to name it after an island, in imitation of the Java programming language which shares a name with the Indonesian island of Java.

Development

The first commit to the Kotlin Git repository was on 8 November 2010.
In July 2011, JetBrains unveiled Project Kotlin, a new language for the JVM, which had been under development for a year. JetBrains lead Dmitry Jemerov said that most languages did not have the features they were looking for, with the exception of Scala. However, he cited the slow compilation time of Scala as a deficiency. One of the stated goals of Kotlin is to compile as quickly as Java. In February 2012, JetBrains open sourced the project under the Apache 2 license.
JetBrains expected Kotlin to drive IntelliJ IDEA sales.
Kotlin 1.0 was released on 15 February 2016. This is considered to be the first officially stable release and JetBrains has committed to long-term backwards compatibility starting with this version.
At Google I/O 2017, Google announced first-class support for Kotlin on Android. On 7 May 2019, Google announced that the Kotlin programming language is now its preferred language for Android app developers.

Design

Development lead Andrey Breslav has said that Kotlin is designed to be an industrial-strength object-oriented language, and a "better language" than Java, but still be fully interoperable with Java code, allowing companies to make a gradual migration from Java to Kotlin.
Semicolons are optional as a statement terminator; in most cases a newline is sufficient for the compiler to deduce that the statement has ended.
Kotlin variable declarations and parameter lists have the data type come after the variable name, similar to Ada, BASIC, Pascal, TypeScript and Rust. This, according to an article from Roman Elizarov, current project lead, results in alignment of variable names and is more pleasing to eyes, especially when there are a few variable declarations in succession, and one or more of the types is too complex for type inference, or needs to be declared explicitly for human readers to understand.
The influence of Scala in Kotlin can be seen in the extensive support for both object-oriented and functional programming and in a number of specific features:
Kotlin 1.3 added support for contracts, which are stable for the standard library declarations, but still experimental for user-defined declarations. Contracts are inspired by Eiffel's design by contract programming paradigm.
Following, Kotlin code may be transpiled to JavaScript, allowing for interoperability between code written in the two languages. This can be used either to write full web applications in Kotlin, or to share code between a Kotlin backend and a JavaScript frontend.

Syntax

Procedural programming style

Kotlin relaxes Java's restriction of allowing static methods and variables to exist only within a class body. Static objects and functions can be defined at the top level of the package without needing a redundant class level. For compatibility with Java, Kotlin provides a JvmName annotation which specifies a class name used when the package is viewed from a Java project. For example, @file:JvmName.

Main entry point

As in C, C++, C#, Java, and Go, the entry point to a Kotlin program is a function named "main", which may be passed an array containing any command-line arguments. This is optional since Kotlin 1.3. Perl, PHP, and Unix shell–style string interpolation is supported. Type inference is also supported.

// Hello, World! example
fun main


fun main

Extension functions

Similar to C#, Kotlin allows adding an extension function to any class without the formalities of creating a derived class with new functions. An extension function has access to all the public interface of a class, which it can use to create a new function interface to a target class. An extension function will appear exactly like a function of the class and will be shown in code completion inspection of class functions. For example:

package com.example.myStringExtensions
fun String.lastChar: Char = get
>>> println)

By placing the preceding code in the top-level of a package, the String class is extended to include a function that was not included in the original definition of the String class.

// Overloading '+' operator using an extension function
operator fun Point.plus: Point
>>> val p1 = Point
>>> val p2 = Point
>>> println
Point

Scope functions

Kotlin has five scope functions, which allow the changing of scope within the context of an object. The scope functions are,,,, and.

Unpack arguments with spread operator

Similar to Python, the spread operator asterisk unpacks an array's contents as individual arguments to a function, e.g.:

fun main

Destructuring declarations

Destructuring declarations decompose an object into multiple variables at once, e.g. a 2D coordinate object might be destructured into two integers, and.
For example, the object supports destructuring to simplify access to its key and value fields:

for
println

Nested functions

Kotlin allows local functions to be declared inside of other functions or methods.

class User

fun saveUserToDb

Classes are final by default

In Kotlin, to derive a new class from a base class type, the base class needs to be explicitly marked as "open". This is in contrast to most object-oriented languages such as Java where classes are open by default.
Example of a base class that is open to deriving a new subclass from it:

// open on the class means this class will allow derived classes
open class MegaButton
class GigaButton: MegaButton

Abstract classes are open by default

Abstract classes define abstract or "pure virtual" placeholder functions that will be defined in a derived class. Abstract classes are open by default.

// No need for the open keyword here, it’s already open by default
abstract class Animated

Classes are public by default

Kotlin provides the following keywords to restrict visibility for top-level declaration, such as classes, and for class members: public, internal, protected, and private.
When applied to a class member:
KeywordVisibility
public Everywhere
internalWithin a module
protectedWithin subclasses
privateWithin a class

When applied to a top-level declaration:
KeywordVisibility
public Everywhere
internalWithin a module
privateWithin a file

Example:

// Class is visible only to current module
internal open class TalkativeButton
internal class MyTalkativeButton: TalkativeButton
MyTalkativeButton.utter

Primary constructor vs. secondary constructors

Kotlin supports the specification of a "primary constructor" as part of the class definition itself, consisting of an argument list following the class name. This argument list supports an expanded syntax on Kotlin's standard function argument lists that enables declaration of class properties in the primary constructor, including visibility, extensibility, and mutability attributes. Additionally, when defining a subclass, properties in super-interfaces and super-classes can be overridden in the primary constructor.

// Example of class using primary constructor syntax
//
open class BaseUser
open class PowerUser:BaseUser

However, in cases where more than one constructor is needed for a class, a more general constructor can be defined using secondary constructor syntax, which closely resembles the constructor syntax used in most object-oriented languages like C++, C#, and Java.

// Example of class using secondary constructor syntax
//
class Context
class AttributeSet
open class View
class MyButton : View

Sealed classes

Sealed classes and interfaces restrict subclass hierarchies, meaning more control over the inheritance hierarchy.
Declaration of sealed interface and class:

sealed interface Expr
sealed class Job

All the subclasses of the sealed class are defined at compile time.
No new subclasses can be added to it after the compilation of the module having the sealed class.
For example, a sealed class in a compiled jar file cannot be subclassed.

sealed class Vehicle
data class Car: Vehicle
class Bike: Vehicle
class Tractor: Vehicle
val kiaCar = Car
val hyundaiCar = Car

Data classes

Kotlin's data class construct defines classes whose primary purpose is storing data, similar to Java's record types. Like Java's record types, the construct is similar to normal classes except that the key methods equals, hashCode and toString are automatically generated from the class properties. Unlike Java's records, data classes are open for inheritance.

Kotlin interactive shell


$ kotlinc-jvm
type :help for help; :quit for quit
>>> 2 + 2
>>> println
Hello, World!

Kotlin as a scripting language

Kotlin can also be used as a scripting language. A script is a Kotlin source file using the filename extension, with executable source code at the top-level scope:

// list_folders.kts
import java.io.File
val folders = File.listFiles
folders?.forEach

Scripts can be run by passing the -script option and the corresponding script file to the compiler.

$ kotlinc -script list_folders.kts "path_to_folder_to_inspect"

Null safety

Kotlin makes a distinction between nullable and non-nullable data types. All nullable objects must be declared with a "?" postfix after the type name. Operations on nullable objects need special care from developers: a null-check must be performed before using the value, either explicitly, or with the aid of Kotlin's null-safe operators:
  • can be used to safely access a method or property of a possibly null object. If the object is null, the method will not be called and the expression evaluates to null. Example:
  • is a binary operator that returns the first operand, if non-null, else the second operand. It is often referred to as the Elvis operator, due to its resemblance to an emoticon representation of Elvis Presley.

Lambdas

Kotlin provides support for higher-order functions and anonymous functions, or lambdas.

// the following function takes a lambda, f, and executes f passing it the string "lambda"
// note that -> Unit indicates a lambda with a String parameter and Unit return type
fun executeLambda

Lambdas are declared using braces,. If a lambda takes parameters, they are declared within the braces and followed by the operator.

// the following statement defines a lambda that takes a single parameter and passes it to the println function
val l =
// lambdas with no parameters may simply be defined using
val l2 =

"Hello world" example


fun main

Tools

Kotlin Multiplatform

Kotlin Multiplatform allows a single codebase to target multiple platforms such as Windows, Linux, web, Android and iOS.
Compose Multiplatform is a multi-platform UI framework based on Jetpack Compose. It is Jetpack Compose for Android ported to Windows, macOS, Linux, web, and iOS. Jetpack Compose uses a Kotlin compiler plugin to transform composable functions into UI elements. For example, the Text composable function displays a text label on the screen.

Applications

When Kotlin was announced as an official Android development language at Google I/O in May 2017, it became the third language fully supported for Android, after Java and C++., Kotlin was the most widely used language on Android, with Google estimating that 70% of the top 1,000 apps on the Play Store were written in Kotlin. Google itself had 60 apps written in Kotlin, including Maps and Drive. Many Android apps, such as Google Home, were in the process of being migrated to Kotlin, and therefore use both Kotlin and Java. Kotlin on Android is seen as beneficial for its null-pointer safety, as well as for its features that make for shorter, more readable code.
Ktor is Jetbrains Kotlin first framework for building server and client applications. The Spring Framework officially added Kotlin support with version 5, on 4 January 2017. To further support Kotlin, Spring has translated all its documentation to Kotlin, and added built-in support for many Kotlin-specific features such as coroutines.
In 2020, JetBrains found in a survey of developers who use Kotlin that 56% were using Kotlin for mobile apps, while 47% were using it for a web back-end. Just over a third of all Kotlin developers said that they were migrating to Kotlin from another language. Most Kotlin users were targeting Android, with only 6% using Kotlin Native.

Adoption

In 2018, Kotlin was the fastest growing language on GitHub, with 2.6 times more developers compared to 2017. It is the fourth most loved programming language according to the 2020 Stack Overflow Developer Survey.
Kotlin was also awarded the O'Reilly Open Source Software Conference Breakout Award for 2019.
Many companies/organizations have used Kotlin for backend development:
Some companies/organizations have used Kotlin for web development:
A number of companies have publicly stated they were using Kotlin: