Programming paradigm

A programming paradigm is a relatively high-level way to conceptualize and structure the implementation of a computer program. A programming language can be classified as supporting one or many paradigms.
Paradigms are separated along and described by different dimensions of programming. Some paradigms are about implications of the execution model, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are about the way code is organized, such as grouping into units that include both state and behavior. Yet others are about syntax and grammar.
Some common programming paradigms include :

Imperative code directly controls execution flow and state change, explicit statements that change a program state
* procedural organized as procedures that call each other
* object-oriented organized as objects that contain both data structure and associated behavior, uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions to design programs
** Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
** Object-based - paradigm which the object has a construct to encapsulate state and behavior.
** Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Declarative code declares properties of the desired result, but not how to compute it, describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes
* functional a desired result is declared as the value of a series of function evaluations, uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
* logic a desired result is declared as the answer to a question about a system of facts and rules, uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
* reactive a desired result is declared with data streams and the propagation of change
Concurrent programming – has language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources, or futures
*Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints, directing allowable solutions
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change
Distributed programming – has support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
*Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
*Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually ; also termed ''diagrammatic programming''
Overview

Programming paradigms come from computer science research into existing practices of software development. The findings allow for describing and comparing programming practices and the languages used to code programs. For perspective, other fields of research study
software engineering processes and describe various methodologies to describe and compare them.
A programming language can be described in terms of paradigms. Some languages support only one paradigm. For example, Smalltalk supports object-oriented and Haskell supports functional. Most languages support multiple paradigms. For example, a program written in C++, Object Pascal, or PHP can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain aspects of both paradigms, or others.
When using a language that supports multiple paradigms, the developer chooses which paradigm elements to use. But, this choice may not involve considering paradigms per se. The developer often uses the features of a language as the language provides them and to the extent that the developer knows them. Categorizing the resulting code by paradigm is often an academic activity done in retrospect.
Languages categorized as imperative paradigm have two main features: they state the order in which operations occur, with constructs that explicitly control that order, and they allow side effects, in which state can be modified at one point in time, within one unit of code, and then later read at a different point in time inside a different unit of code. The communication between the units of code is not explicit.
In contrast, languages in the declarative paradigm do not state the order in which to execute operations. Instead, they supply a number of available operations in the system, along with the conditions under which each is allowed to execute. The implementation of the language's execution model tracks which operations are free to execute and chooses the order independently. More at Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages.
In object-oriented programming, code is organized into objects that contain state that is owned by and controlled by the code of the object. Most object-oriented languages are also imperative languages.
In object-oriented programming, programs are treated as a set of interacting objects. In functional programming, programs are treated as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, in process-oriented programming, programs are treated as sets of concurrent processes that act on a logical shared data structures.
Many programming paradigms are as well known for the techniques they forbid as for those they support. For instance, pure functional programming disallows side-effects, while structured programming disallows the goto construct. Partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to older ones. Yet, avoiding certain techniques can make it easier to understand program behavior, and to prove theorems about program correctness.
Programming paradigms can also be compared with programming models, which allows invoking an execution model by using only an API. Programming models can also be classified into paradigms based on features of the execution model.
For parallel computing, using a programming model instead of a language is common. The reason is that details of the parallel hardware leak into the abstractions used to program the hardware. This causes the programmer to have to map patterns in the algorithm onto patterns in the execution model. As a consequence, no one parallel programming language maps well to all computation problems. Thus, it is more convenient to use a base sequential language and insert API calls to parallel execution models via a programming model. Such parallel programming models can be classified according to abstractions that reflect the hardware, such as shared memory, distributed memory with message passing, notions of place visible in the code, and so forth. These can be considered flavors of programming paradigm that apply to only parallel languages and programming models.

Criticism

Some programming language researchers criticise the notion of paradigms as a classification of programming languages, e.g. Harper, and Krishnamurthi. They argue that many programming languages cannot be strictly classified into one paradigm, but rather include features from several paradigms. See Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages.

History

Different approaches to programming have developed over time. Classification of each approach was either described at the time the approach was first developed, but often not until some time later, retrospectively. An early approach consciously identified as such is structured programming, advocated since the mid 1960s. The concept of a programming paradigm as such dates at least to 1978, in the Turing Award lecture of Robert W. Floyd, entitled The Paradigms of Programming, which cites the notion of paradigm as used by Thomas Kuhn in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Early programming languages did not have clearly defined programming paradigms and sometimes programs made extensive use of goto statements, liberal use of which led to spaghetti code which is difficult to understand and maintain. This led to the development of structured programming paradigms that disallowed the use of goto statements, only allowing the use of more structured programming constructs.

Languages and paradigms

Machine code

is the lowest-level of computer programming as it is machine instructions that define behavior at the lowest level of abstract possible for a computer. As it is the most prescriptive way to code it is classified as imperative.
It is sometimes called the first-generation programming language.

Assembly

introduced mnemonics for machine instructions and memory addresses. Assembly is classified as imperative and is sometimes called the second-generation programming language.
In the 1960s, assembly languages were developed to support library COPY and quite sophisticated conditional macro generation and preprocessing abilities, CALL to subroutine, external variables and common sections, enabling significant code re-use and isolation from hardware specifics via the use of logical operators such as READ/WRITE/GET/PUT. Assembly was, and still is, used for time-critical systems and often in embedded systems as it gives the most control of what the machine does.