List of sources for the Crusades
The list of sources for the Crusades provides those contemporaneous written accounts and other artifacts of the Crusades covering the period from the Council of Clermont in 1095 until the fall of Acre in 1291. These sources include chronicles, personal accounts, official documents and archaeological findings. As such, these lists provide the medieval historiography of the Crusades.
A number of 17th through 19th century historians published numerous collections of original sources of the Crusades. These include Recueil des historiens des croisades, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Revue de l'Orient Latin/Archives de l'Orient Latin and the Rolls Series. Other collections are of interest to the Crusader period include Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, Patrologia Latina, Patrologia Graeco-Latina, Patrologia Orientalis, Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium and Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society.
Modern reference material to these sources include Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Dictionary of National Biography, Neue Deutsche Biographie, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Catholic Encyclopedia, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle, Encyclopædia Iranica, ''Encyclopædia Islamica and Encyclopaedia of Islam. Contemporary histories include the three-volume A History of the Crusades by Steven Runciman; the Wisconsin collaborative study A'' History of the Crusades edited by Kenneth M. Setton, particularly the Select Bibliography by Hans E. Mayer; Fordham University's Internet Medieval Sourcebook; and The Crusades: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan V. Murray.
Principal Western sources for the history of the Crusades
The Western sources for the history of the Crusades begin with the original Latin chronicles. Later works on the First Crusade were mostly derived from these and are exemplified by William of Tyre's Historia and its continuations. The later Crusades produced a vast library of first-hand accounts, biographies and chronicles. Other sources include official documents and communications, personal letters and accounts, and topics such as archaeology and numismatics.Original Latin chronicles of the First Crusade
The major chronicles of the First Crusade by contemporaneous Western authors are listed below, referenced to RHC, Runciman and Murray.Gesta Francorum. Gesta Francorum is an anonymous chronicle that proved to be one of the most popular accounts of the First Crusade. The chronicle, also referred to as Anonymi Gesta Francorum, is reputed to be written by a follower of Bohemond of Taranto and covers the period from November 1095 until the battle of Ascalon in 1099. It was first published in late 1100 or early 1101. Peter Tudebode. Peter Tudebode was a Poitevin priest in the army of Raymond of Saint-Gilles. '' His Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, with Præfatio, was released shortly after the very similar Gesta Francorum, edited by French historian Jean Besly. Tudebode's version includes additional material, including the death of Crusader Rainald Porcet who died at the siege of Antioch in 1098. Historia belli sacri. Historia belli sacri was a history written by an unknown monk at the Abbey of Monte Cassino around 1130. The Historia covers the First Crusade and the early days of the Principality of Antioch ending with the death of Bohemond II of Antioch in 1130. The Historia drew material from Gesta Francorum and Gesta Tancredi. Raymond of Aguilers. Raymond of Aguilers was a participant in the First Crusade and eventually became chaplain of Raymond of Saint-Gilles. His chronicle, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, known as Historia Francorum, concentrated on Raymond's exploits. The work covered the period from the journey to Constantinople in 1096 until the end of 1099, after the capture of Jerusalem. He may have had access to portions of Gesta Francorum but his work is regarded as independent. Pons of Balazun, a member of Raymond's army, is credited as a co-author of Historia Francorum. Fulcher of Chartres. Fulcher of Chartres was a priest who participated in the First Crusade eventually joining Baldwin I of Jerusalem. His chronicle Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium consists of three volumes. The first covers the period from the Council of Clermont in 1095 until the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100. The second covers the reign of Baldwin I from 1100–1118, and the third the partial reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem from 1118–1127 when the narrative was interrupted by the plague in Jerusalem. Because Fulcher was with Baldwin I in Edessa from 1098, some material in his chronicle was derived from Gesta Francorum and Historia Francorum. The three volumes were written from 1100–1106, 1109–1115 and 1118–1127, and compiled into a second edition by Fulcher before his death. Albert of Aachen. Albert of Aachen was a historian, presumably German, who wrote the fullest contemporaneous account of the First Crusade in his Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis. His chronicle covers the period from the Council of Clermont until 1121. It was written between 1125 and 1150, and has long been regarded as the most authoritative source of the period, but immune from criticism. Ekkehard of Aura. Ekkehard of Aura was a Bavarian abbot of Aura and participant in the Crusade of 1101. He wrote his Hierosolymita in five recensions from 1098-1125, covering first the period from 1057 through the First Crusade. The final recension is known as Chronicon universale and is an extension of the work of Frutolf of Michelsberg. The fourth recension of Hierosolymita makes use of Sigebert's Chronicon sive Chronographia providing a perspective on the Rhineland massacres of Jews in 1096. Robert of Reims. Robert of Reims, abbot of Saint-Remi, wrote his Historia Hierosolymitana that covers his participation at the Council of Clermont until as late as 1120. His history was written between 1107–1120 and is regarded as source material for the work of Gilo of Toucy. Baldric of Dol. Baldric of Dol was bishop of Dol-Bretagne when he wrote his Historiae Hierosolymitanae libri IV, an account of the First Crusade based on Gesta Francorum. His work was edited by Pierre de Maillezais. He also wrote Vita di Roberti de Arbrisello, a biography of Robert of Arbrissel. Radulph of Caen. Radulph of Caen (Ralph of Caen) was a Norman chaplain who wrote Gesta Tancredi in expeditione Hierosolymitana. Ralph accompanied Bohemond of Taranto in 1107–1108, and wrote Gesta Tancredi in 1113. Guibert of Nogent. Guibert of Nogent was a Benedictine historian who wrote Dei gesta per Francos based on Gesta Francorum and Gesta Tancredi. The history was written in 1108 and reworked in 1121. Dei gesta includes an account of the Council of Clermont and an eyewitness account of the preachings of Peter the Hermit.Most of the original sources were collected in Gesta Dei per Francos, compiled by French historian Jacques Bongars. The Gesta also includes works by William of Tyre, Marino Sanudo and Pierre Dubois.
Contemporaneous works on the First Crusade
Works derived from the original Latin sources written primarily in the early part of the 12th century are listed below.Major Sources. Major contemporaneous sources that are frequently cited include the following.Bardolf of Nangis. Bartolf of Nangis was a French historian who, in 1108, published Gesta Francorum Iherusalem expugnatium that drew heavily on Gesta Francorum and Fulcher's now lost 1106 manuscript. William of Malmesbury. William of Malmesbury was a prominent English historian whose Gesta Regum Anglorum discusses the Council of Clermont based on Fulcher's Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium and includes an account of the White Ship disaster which claimed the lives of over 140 knights and noblemen including famed Crusader Ralph the Red. Richard of Poitiers. Richard of Poitiers was a French monk at Cluny Abbey who wrote Chronica Richardi Pictauiensis, monachus cluniacensis de diuersis libris collecta, a chronicle of history from Genesis to the 1170s. His account of the Crusades were taken from Fulcher of Chartres. Sicard of Cremona. Sicard of Cremona was an Italian prelate and historian who wrote his Chronica Universalis that covers universal history from the creation to 1213, includes material based on Fulcher of Chartres' work. His work was continued by Salimbene di Adam's Cronica. Hugh of Fleury. Hugh of Fleury, also known as Hugo Floriacensis or Hugo de S. Maria, was a French Benedictine monk who wrote Itineris Hierosolymitani Compendium based on Tudebode's Historia. Henry of Huntingdon. Henry of Huntingdon was an English historian whose De Captione Antiochiae is excerpted from his Historia Anglorum. It was written before 1129 and includes a section on the First Crusade based on Tudebode's Historia. Caffaro di Rustico da Caschifellone. Caffaro di Rustico da Caschifellone was a Genoese admiral and historian who wrote De liberatione civitatum Orientis and began the Annales ianuenses. His work provides a Genoese perspective on the First Crusade and the Embriaco family. A later historian wrote Regni Ierosolimitani brevis hystoria, which is regarded as a continuation of Caffaro's De liberatione. Walter the Chancellor. Walter the Chancellor was a French or Norman Crusader who wrote Bella Antiochena covering the history of the Principality of Antioch from 1114–1122. He was likely present at the battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119. Walter wrote his history between 1119 and 1122 while he was serving as chancellor of the principality. Gilo of Toucy. Gilo of Toucy was a French poet and cleric who wrote Historia de via Hierosolymitana, an epic verse history of the First Crusade covering the Council of Clermont through the capture of Jerusalem. The work was written before 1120 and it is believed that Gilo had access to participants. Sigebert of Gembloux. Sigebert of Gembloux was a Belgian Benedictine monk who wrote Chronicon sive Chronographia, a chronological survey covering 381–1111, with an emphasis on 1008–1111. His work also addresses the Rhineland massacres. A continuation of his work called Auctarium Gemblacense was written by Anselm of Gembloux and Guillaume de Nangis.
Later works. Works written sometime after the First Crusade, but still regarded as original sources include the following:Abridged version of Fulcher's Chronicle. Gesta Francorum Hierusalem expugantium is a shorter version of Fulcher of Chartres' Historia Hierosolymitana. Written ca. 1118, the work is cited separately in both RHC and a paper by Crusades historian Jay Rubenstein. Præfatio to Tudebode's Historia. Joannis Besly Pictonis Præfatio is the preface by French historian Jean Besly to Peter Tudebode's Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, reproduced in Historiens occidentaux. Besly challenged the version of Gesta Francorum in the collection of Crusader works known as Gesta Dei per Francos. Geoffroy of Vigeois. Geoffroy of Vigeois, also known as Geoffroy du Breuil, was abbot of Vigeois and a historian who wrote his Chroniques covering the history of Limoges and its citizens from 994-1182. The Chroniques provide and account of the siege of Ma'arrat al-Nu'man of 1098 and the role of the Limogenese knight Gouffier of Lastours. It also discusses the rise of the Cathars. Li Estoire de Jerusalem et d'Antioche. Li Estoire de Jerusalem et d'Antioche is an abbreviated, vernacular version of Fulcher of Chartres' Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium, with additional accounts written in various French dialects. It was written by unknown authors after 1250. Benedetto Accolti. Benedetto Accolti, also known as Benedict Aretini Accolti, was an Italian historian who wrote De Bello a Christianis contra Barbaros gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et Judaea recuperandis libri IV, a history of the First Crusade that is regarded as Crusader propaganda. Published in 1464, the sources are uncertain. Nomitia Historica. Godefridus Bullonius Nomitia Historica is a biography of Godfrey of Bouillon first appearing in Histoire littéraire de la France, tom. VIII. It draws on the works of William of Tyre and Orderic Vitalis. In the Patrologia Latina edition, the work appears with editions of: Gesta Tancredi ; Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem ; Historia Hierosolymitana, Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, with Joannis Besly Pictonis Præfatio; Historia Hierosolymitana ; Historia gestorum viæ nostri temporis Hierosolymitanæ ; Bella Antiochena ; Liber Locorum Sanctorum Terræ Jerusalem ; Descriptio terrae sanctae ; and Narrativ brevis belli sacri.
Minor works. Other works that are limited in scope, highly derivative or sparsely cited are listed below.Expeditio contra Turcos. by an anonymous author is a short account based on Tudebode's Historia. Expeditio is also known as Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hiersolymitanorum, seu Tudebodus abbreviatus. Theodorus Palidensis., a monk at Pöhlde Abbey, wrote a short piece called Narratio profectionis Godefridi ducis ad Jerusalem about the First Crusade, as part of the Annales Palidenses. His work was based on that of Ekkehard of Aura. Historia Nicaena vel Antiochena. The anonymous work Historia Nicaena vel Antiochena covers the period from before the Council of Clermont through the capture of Baldwin II of Jerusalem in 1123, covering all of the rulers of the kingdom up to that point. The work was commissioned by Baldwin III of Jerusalem and written in 1146. Frutolf of Michelsberg. Frutolf of Michelsberg was a Bavarian prior who wrote a Chronicon universale covering Creation until 1099. His work was later extended by others including Ekkehard of Aura. Balduini III Historiae Nicenae vel Antichenae. Balduini III Historiae Nicenae vel Antichenae is an anonymous history of the First Crusade with a continuation to 1123. Written in 1146–1147 under the direction of Baldwin III of Jerusalem, the account before 1100 is derivative of Fulcher of Chartres' Historia Hierosolymitana. The work was discovered and edited by French historian Edmond Martène in 1718. Also referred to as Monitum in Balduini III Historiae Nicenae vel Antichenae Prologum. Primi belli sacri Narrationes minors is a series of fourteen short narratives or excerpts written on the Crusades, collected in the Historiens occidentaux of RHC. These are: Gesta peregrinorum Andegavensium; Dictamen de primordiis ecclesiæ Castaliensis ; Notitæ Duæ Lemovicenses de Praedicatione Crucis; Gesta Adhemari, Episcopi Podiensis, Hiersolymitana; Narratio Floriacensis; Itineris Hierosolymitani Compendium ; Gesta Triumphalia Pisanorum; Chronicon breve Hierosolymitanum; Narrativ brevis belli sacri; De Captione Antiochiae ; Breviarium Passagii in Terram Sanctam ; Duellum Nicænum ; Proæmium primi belli sacri ; and Exordium monastery S. Andreæ Brugensis. Gesta peregrinorum Andegavensium is an anonymous 12th century work describing portions of Fragmentum Historiae Andegavensis ,'' written by Fulk IV Rechin, dealing with the preaching of Urban II in northern France from 1095–1096 after the Council of Clermont. Geoffrey of Châlard founded the priory of Châlard in 1089 and his Dictamen de primordiis ecclesiæ Castaliensis provides an account of Urban II's preaching at Limoges late in 1095. Gouffier of Lastours attempted to convince Geoffrey to take the cross, but a vision of local martyr convinced him to stay at le Châlard. Notitæ Duæ Lemovicenses de Praedicatione Crucis in Aquitania is an anonymous account of the events of the First Crusade in 1095-1097 including the Rhineland massacres. The work is derivative of Sigebert of Gembloux's Chronicon sive Chronographia and was attached to Chroniques of Geoffroy du Breuil. Gesta Adhemari, Episcopi Podiensis, Hiersolymitana. Gesta Adhemari, Episcopi Podiensis, Hiersolymitana is a short anonymous work describing Adhemar's leadership at Nicaea and Antioch, where he died in 1098. Gesta Adhemari is included in the Cartulaire de Saint-Chaffre. Exordium monastery S. Andreæ Brugensis, from the Chronicle of the Abbey of Saint Andre of Bruges, edited by Arnold Goethals in 1504, covers the First Crusade from 1096-1098. Historia Gotfridi. Historia et Gesta Ducis Gotfridi seu historia de desidione Terræ sanctæ by anonymous German authors covers the First Crusade and the period from 1106-1191. It is derivative of the works of Bartolf of Nangis, Robert the Monk, Jacques de Vitry and Oliver of Paderborn, and was published in 1141. Scriptores Minores Quinti Belli sacri is a collection of minor works on the Crusades, edited by German historian Reinhold Röhricht. They include: Ordinacio de predications Crucis in Anglia; Gesta crucigerorum Rhenanorum; Di Itinere Frisonum; Gesta obsidionis Damiata and Liber duelli Christiani in obsidione Damiatae exacti; and La Prise de Damiette en 1219.
Other works that cover the First Crusade include Translatio Sancti Nicolai in Venetiam, Narratio Floriacensis, Solimarius by Gunther of Pairis and Breviarium Passagii in Terram Sanctam'' by Hugh of Lerchenfeld.
Works of William of Tyre and continuations
William of Tyre was a Jerusalem-born historian of French or Italian descent who is regarded as the greatest of the Crusade chroniclers. His Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum and continuations by later historians are key to the understanding of the period.Historia. William's major work Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum begins with the events of the First Crusade and goes through the events in the Holy Land through early 1184. It consists of twenty-three books written between 1170–1184. His account up through the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 is based on that of Albert of Aachen, and Fulcher of Chartres and Walter the Chancellor from 1100–1127. To a lesser extent, the history is also believed to be derivative of Raymond of Aguilers, Baldric of Dol and Usama ibn Munqidh. The period from 1127–1160 is based on official and personal records. Ernoul. Ernoul was a squire of Balian of Ibelin who wrote La Chronique d'Ernoul et de Bernard le trésorier that covers the period 1183–1197 including an eyewitness account to the fall of Jerusalem in 1187, the news of which caused Urban III to die of shock. The work is regarded as an extension of William of Tyre's Historia. Estoire d'Eracles. The Estoire d'Eracles émperor is an anonymous history of Jerusalem from 630–1277. The work was written from 1205–1234 with additions from 1220–1277. Estoire d'Eracles draws from both Ernoul and Rothelin. Rothelin. The Rothelin Continuation is an anonymous history covering the Holy Land from the period from 1229–1261, including the Barons' Crusade, the Seventh Crusade and the initial Mongol raids in 1260. It only survives as part of Estoire d'Eracles. Itinerario di la Gran Militia. Itinerario di la Gran Militia, a la Pavese is an anonymous 15th-century work on the First Crusade based on the work of William of Tyre..French historical works and ''chansons''
The Franks wrote many accounts of the Crusades, the most important of which were the chansons de geste that formed the Crusade cycle. These include the Chanson d'Antioche and Chanson de Jérusalem. The Occitan Canso d'Antioca is in a similar format. They also provided many stories of chivalry which evolved after the Second Crusade. Additional historical material can be found in Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France compiled by Martin Bouquet and in the publications of the Société de l'histoire de France (SHF).Chansons and other writingsChanson d'Antiche. Chanson d'Antioche is a chanson de geste said to be composed by one Richard the Pilgrim that describes the First Crusade from the original preaching through the taking of Antioch in 1098 and into 1099. While recognizing potential historical inaccuracies in the story, Chanson d'Antioche was a valuable resource in helping catalog participants in the early Crusades. Chanson de Jérusalem. Chanson de Jérusalem is a 12th-century chanson de geste celebrating the capture of Jerusalem in 1099.Canso d'Antioca. Canso d'Antioca is an Occitan chanson de geste composed between 1108–1118 that describes the First Crusade up to the siege of Antioch in 1097–1098. Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne is an Old French chanson de geste dealing with a fictional expedition by Charlemagne and his knights.Chanson du Chevalier au Cygne is a chanson de geste based on the tale of the Knight of the Swan, reworked to have the hero a legendary ancestor of Godfrey of Bouillon. Chrétien de Troyes. Chrétien de Troyes was a French poet and trouvère who wrote a number of Arthurian romances and whose Conte du graal may have been inspired by Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. His work focused on chivalry and was influential among Crusaders.Jaufre Rudel. Jaufre Rudel was an Occitan troubadour who likely died on the Second Crusade after writing chansons about his experiences. His fictionalized biography claims he was inspired to go on crusade upon hearing of the beauty of Melisende of Tripoli. Ordene de chevalerie. Ordene de chevalerie is an Old French poem written c. 1220 and provides a fictional account of the Kingdom of Jerusalem before the Third Crusade. The work may have drawn on Conte du graal and is included in an Old French translation of William of Tyre.Giraut de Bornelh. Giraut de Bornelh was a Provençal troubadour who took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and may later have participated in the Third Crusade. Among his poems are a criticism of Gregory VIII on his relative inaction after the loss of Jerusalem in 1187. Guyot of Provins. Guyot of Provins was a Cluniac trouvère and satirist who may have participated in the Third Crusade and Fourth Crusade. His six surviving songs were written around 1180. Following the sack of Constantinople in 1204, he questioned in his Œuvres why the pope would allow a Crusade against fellow Christians. Saladin in Literature. Saladin is depicted in many works, some partially historical. Estoires d'Outremer et de la naissance Salehadin is an anonymous account of the Crusades from 1099–1230, including a fictional account of Saladin as the descendant of a countess of Ponthieu. Ordene de chevalerie is a French poem about the Kingdom of Jerusalem before the Third Crusade where Saladin becomes a knight. Dante's Divine Comedy depicts him as a virtuous non-Christian held in limbo.Guillem Figuera. Guillem Figuera was a French troubadour in the court of emperor Frederick II in the 1230s. His poem D'un sirventes far bitterly accused Rome of perfidy and was written in 1229 during the Albigensian Crusade. Raoul de Soissons. Raoul de Soissons was a French trouvère who wrote seven chansons about his participation the Barons' Crusade, Seventh Crusade and Eighth Crusade, where is presumed to have died in 1270. He was married to Alice of Champagne and, with her, served as regent to Conrad II of Jerusalem.Le Tournoi de Chauvency. Jacques Bretel was a French trouvère who wrote Le Tournoi de Chauvency concerning the Tournament of Chauvency held in 1285 by Louis V, Count of Chiny, bringing together nearly 500 knights from around Europe. Many of the participants were past or future Crusaders. It is believed that Louis held the tournament to refute the story of the refusal of his direct ancestor Arnold I of Chiny to provide his sons to the army of Godfrey of Bouillon. Note that Arnold's daughter Helvide accompanied her husband Dodo of Cons with Godfrey on the First Crusade.Rutebeuf. Rutebeuf was a French trouvère who wrote Onze Poèmes concernant la Croisade that includes elegies to Geoffrey of Sergines, Odo of Nevers, Theobald II of Navarre, and Alphonse of Poitiers. Geoffrey de Charny. Geoffroi de Charny was a French knight who was the author of several books on chivalry including the Book of Chivalry. He and his wife are the first recorded owners of the Shroud of Turin, lost after the sack of Constantinople in 1204.
French chronicles, histories and biographies.Hincmar. Hincmar was a French jurist and propagandist for Charles the Bald who struggled with papal authority including with Leo IV, Nicholas I and John VIII. He wrote the extension of Annales Bertiniani begun by Prudentius of Troyes, continuing the work to 882, and Opera Omnia, containing the Epistolæ et decreta of John VIII as well as popes Marinus I and Adrian III. He also wrote De divortio Lotharii regis et Theutbergae reginae concerning king Lothair II. Rodulfus Glaber. Rodulfus Glaber the Bald was a French monk and chronicler whose Historium Sui Temporis provides a history of the Franks from 900–1045. Fulbert of Chartres. Fulbert of Chartres, bishop of Chartres, wrote his Epistolae in 1020 on the lord-vassal relationship at the request of William V, duke of Aquitaine. Cartulaire de Saint-Chaffre. Cartulaire de Saint-Chaffre is a cartulary of the abbey of Saint-Chaffre that includes an account of Guido II, bishop of Le Puy-en-Velay from 975–993 and the early life of Adhemar of Le Puy. The Cartulaire also includes the anonymous Gesta Adhemari, Episcopi Podiensis, Hiersolymitana, a short account of Adhemar's role in the First Crusade. Miracles de Saint-Benoît. Sur les Miracles de Saint-Benoît du Sault is an account of French history from 878–1050 by the monks of Fleury Abbey, most importantly by the chronicler Aimoin of Fleury. The work discusses the Peace and Truce of God movement and the massacre of 700 clerics at Bénécy in 1038. Gesta Consulum Andegavorum. Gesta Consulum Andegavorum is a Latin work compiled by Jean de Marmoutier concerning the counts of Anjou from 1100–1140. It was edited and translated into the French work Chroniques des comtes d'Anjou et des seigneurs d'Amboise by Louis Halphen and René Poupardin.Historiae Gaufredi. Historiae Gaufredi ducis Normannorum et comitis Andegauorum is a biography of Geoffrey Plantagenet, duke of Normandy and count of Anjou, by Jean de Marmoutier. Dedicated to Guillaume de Passavant, bishop of Le Mans from 1142–1186. Geoffrey was the father of Henry II of England.Chronicle of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif of Sens. Chronicon Sancti Petri Vivi Senonensis is an anonymous Latin chronicle written at the Abbey of Saint-Pierre-le-Vif between about 1100 and 1125 with continuations added into the 13th century.Thiou of Morigny. Thiou of Morigny was a chronicler at the abbey of Morigny who wrote Chronicon Mauriniacense covering French history from 1108–1147 and includes the genealogy of the houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset. Milites Regni Francaiæ. Milites Regni Francaiæ is an anonymous work that provided estimates of the size of French forces from Normandy during the reign of Philip II of France. William le Breton. William le Breton was a French chronicler who wrote Gesta Philippi H. regis Francorum and Philippis about the life and times of Philip II of France. Alberic of Trois-Fontaines. Alberic of Trois-Fontaines was a French chronicler whose Chronicon traces history from Creation until 1241. Maius chronicon Lemovicense. The Maius chronicon Lemovicense or Great Chronicle of Limoges is a collection of 13th-century historical notices and chronicles of Limoges preserved in three related manuscripts.Guillaume de Nangis. Guillaume de Nangis was a French chronicler wrote his Chronicon, a history of the world from Creation until 1300, and is partially based on that of Sigebert of Gembloux. Some of his works are included in the Grandes Chroniques de France. His account of the White Ship disaster claimed that all men aboard were sodomites. Grandes Chroniques de France. Grandes Chroniques de France is a compilation of the history of France produced between the 13th and 15th centuries. The original work traced the kings of the Franks from the origins until the death of Philip II of France in 1223, and extended at a later date to the death of Charles V of France in 1380.Gesta Dei per Francos . Gesta Dei per Francos is a collection of Crusader documents edited by French historian Jacques Bongars. The collection was published in 1611 and is considered the precursor to Recueil des historiens des croisades.Histoire littéraire de la France. Histoire littéraire de la France is a collection of the literature of France in 46 volumes, begun in 1733. Of interest to the Crusades is Tome VIII, edited by French Benedictine monk Antoine Rivetde La Grange, known as Dom Rivet. This volume includes biographies of Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond of Aguilers and Peter Tudebode.
Miscellaneous works
Other chronicles cited in the histories include Annals of Vendôme, covering 768–1347, and Chronique de Saint-Maixent, covering 741–1140.
Hebrew accounts of the First Crusade
The Rhineland massacres of 1096 are the subject of three Hebrew chronicles.Solomon bar Simpson Chronicle. The Solomon bar Simpson Chronicle is an anonymous Hebrew narrative history concerning the Rhineland massacres written around 1140. Eliezer ben Nathan. Eliezer ben Nathan was a halakist and poet who wrote of the Rhineland massacres through four pieces of liturgical verse known as Relation. A German translation is provided in Quellen zur Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland. Mainz Anonymous. Mainz Anonymous is a Hebrew account of the First Crusade with an emphasis on the massacres at Mainz.History of the Latin East, 1100–1192
Original sources after the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 include accounts of the Crusade of 1101 and subsequent developments, the Second Crusade, the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187 and the Third Crusade. These include the William of Tyre works as well as the following.The Kingdom through the Second CrusadeDe expugnatione Lyxbonensi. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi is an anonymous chronicle probably written in the late 12th century by an Anglo-Norman priest. It describes the organization and the theological justification used by the Anglo-Norman Crusaders who aided the Portuguese in their conquest of the city of Lisbon during the Second Crusade.Historia Gothorum. Historia Gothorum were anonymous annals that were probably written in the late 12th century or early 13th century covering the life of Afonso I Henriques of Portugal. It contains a section that describes an early attempt by a group of Anglo-Norman Crusaders to take Lisbon as part of their sea journey to the Holy Land c. 1142.Narratio Floriacensis. Narratio Floriacensis de captis Antiochia et Hierosolyma, et obsess Dyrrachio is an anonymous chronicle written at Fleury in 1110 covering period from the siege of Antioch in 1098 through the end of the Crusade of Bohemond of Taranto of 1107-1108. In particular, it covers the role of Arnulf of Chocques
The loss of Jerusalem and the Third CrusadeExpugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum. Libellus de Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum expeditione or Chronicon Terrae Sanctae is an anonymous Latin work covering the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 to Saladin. The first part begins with the death of Baldwin V of Jerusalem in 1186 and ends with the surrender of Jerusalem to the Ayyubids in 1187. The second part relates the spread of the news of the surrender to Europe through the siege of Acre and arrival of the Third Crusaders in 1189. Tageno. Tageno was a Bavarian clergyman and participant in the Third Crusade. His account Descriptio expeditionis Asiaticae Friderici has been described as a diary that covers the period 1189–1190. The work Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris is believed to be derivative of Tageno's. He died in Syria on the expedition.Magnus of Reichersberg. Magnus of Reichersberg was a German canon and historian whose chronicle of Reichersberg Abbey covers the years 1167–1195, including the role of Frederick I in the Third Crusade. His work includes Tageno's Descriptio is its entirety and was later extended to 1279.Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris. The anonymous Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris, or Espeditio Friderici Imperatoris, provides a history of the Third Crusade from 1189–1192 with an emphasis on the expedition of Frederick I Barbarossa including the battle of Iconium of 1190. The author may have been Ansbert, an Austrian cleric and historian. Historia Peregrinorum. History of the Pilgrims is an anonymous account of Frederick I during the Third Crusade. Its three parts discuss the conquests of Saladin, preparation for the crusade and the crusade itself. Epistola de morte Friderici imperatoris. The anonymous Epistola de morte Friderici imperatoris is an account of the activities of Frederick I on Third Crusade.Arnold of Lübeck. Arnold of Lübeck was a Benedictine monk and chronicler who wrote Duellum Nicænum, a continuation of Helmold's Chronica Sclavorum until the year 1209. This includes accounts of Frederick I in the Third Crusade and his cousin Henry the Lion. De Expungnata Accone. De expugnata Accone liber tetrastichus seu rithmus de expeditione ierosolimitana was a poem about the siege of Acre of 1189–1191 by Aymar the Monk, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1194–1202. The work describes the death of Stephen I, Count of Sancerre late in 1190 and his brother Theobald V, Count of Blois a few months later in 1191. Deeds of Ludwig III of Thuringia. Landgraf Ludwigs Kreuzfahrt).Kreuzfahrt des Landgrafen Ludwigs des Frommen von Thüringen is an anonymous German poem written in 1301 dealing with the exploits of Louis III of Thuringia during the Third Crusade that also includes a description of the fall of Jerusalem and the call for the new Crusade.Itinerarium Regis Ricardi. The anonymous Itinerarium Regis Ricardi compiled by Richard de Templo and once attributed to medieval grammarian Geoffrey of Vinsauf, is an account to the Third Crusade from 1189–1192, with well-regarded accounts of Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem and the subsequent campaign of Richard I of England. Ambroise of Normandy. Ambroise of Normandy was a Norman poet and chronicler who wrote of the Third Crusade in his Old French poems L´Estoire de la guerre sainte and Itinerarium regis Ricardi. Both works are regarded as historical sources of Richard I of England, beginning with his taking the cross as Count of Poitou in 1187. Richard of Devizes. Richard of Devizes was an English chronicler and monk who wrote Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi covering the reign of Richard I of England from 1189–1192. Annales de Wintonia, an English chronicle through 1135, has also been attributed to him. Roger of Howden. Roger of Howden was an English chronicler who accompanied Richard I of England on the Third Crusade. His histories include Gesta Regis Ricardi and Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi. covering 1170–1192, Chronica, covering 732–1201. The Gesta Regis Ricardi provides insight into the aftermath of the loss of Jerusalem in Europe, with Joscius of Tyre attempting to reconcile Henry II of England and Philip II of France at the conference at Gisors. His work was previously attributed to Benedict of Peterborough. Hugh of Lerchenfeld wrote a continuation of Annales Ratisponensie called Breviarium Passagii in Terram Sanctam. The original Annales covered the period from the time of Christ until 1167, and Hugh extended it for the years 1173-1201 and it was later extended to 1216. He also added material on the First Crusade from Robert the Monk and Ekkehard of Aura. Saladin Tithe. The Saladin tithe of 1188 was a tax levied by Henry II of England to support the conduct of the Third Crusade. The tithe was issued by charter and reported in Gesta Regis Ricardi and Roger of Wendover's Flores Historiarum. The tithe was not without controversy, with attempted embezzlement by a Templar named Gilbert of Hoxton and William the Lion's refusal to collect. Ralph de Diceto. Ralph de Diceto (Radulph of Diceto) was Dean of St. Pauls Cathedral who wrote two books Abbreviationes chronicorum, based on the works of Robert of Torigni, and Ymagines historiarum that cover the periods from the birth of Christ until 1147, and from 1147–1202, respectively. Peter of Blois. Peter of Blois was a French theologian who wrote Passio Reginaldi, concerning the Third Crusade and the execution of Raynald of Châtillon by Saladin, Dialogus inter regem Henricum secundum et abbatem Bonnevallensem, about Henry II of England, and Conquestio de dilatione vie Ierosolimitane, concerning the fall of Jerusalem in 1187. Narratio Itineris Navalis ad Terram Sanctam is an anonymous account of a Third Crusader's travel by ship to the Holy Land, stopping to conquer the Moorish city of Silves. Gesta Philippi Augusti. Rigord was a French chronicler who wrote Gesta Philippi Augusti, covering the reign of Philip II of France from 1179–1206, including his role in the Third Crusade.'' Die Briefe des Canonicus was a chronicle of the Third Crusade written by Guy of Bazoches, a French cleric had taken part in the retinue of Henry II of Champagne.Chronicle of Richard the First's Crusade is an account by Geoffrey of Vinsauf. In Chronicles of the Crusades, published in Bohn's Libraries.
Related histories.Historia Rerum Anglicarum. William of Newburgh was an English historian who wrote Historia rerum Anglicarum. Also known as Historia de rebus anglicis, the work covers the period from 1066–1195. Orderic Vitalis. Orderic Vitalis was an English chronicler who wrote Historia Ecclesiastica, a general social history of medieval England that includes a section on the First Crusade, with an emphasis on Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy. The account begins with the Council of Clermont and goes through the 1137 submission of Raymond of Poitiers to emperor John II Komnenos. His Historia draws heavily on Fulcher's Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium and his friend Baldric's Historiae Hierosolymitanae libri IV. He also contributed to the continuation of Gesta Normannorum Ducum. Chronicle of Novgorod. The Novgorod First Chronicle provides a history of Novgorodian Rus' from 1016–1471, including discussions of the fall of Constantinople in 1204 and the Mongol invasion of the West. Melisande Psalter.' The Melisende Psalter is a manuscript commissioned around 1135 by Fulk of Jerusalem for his wife Melisende. The historical value of the psalter is for its contribution to the understanding of Crusader art, but also provides a calendar of event relating to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
''Gestes des Chiprois''
Les Gestes des Chiprois is an Old French chronicle of the history of the Crusader states and Kingdom of Cyprus between 1132 and 1309. The work was based on previous and original sources, and was completed in 1315–1320. The anonymous author was likely from Tyre, becoming a member of the chancery of the Knights Templar. Gestes des Chiprois and the work and continuations of William of Tyre form the basis of the study of Outremer after the Third Crusade. The chronicle is in three parts: Chronique de Terre Sainte, Philip of Navarro's History, and Chronique du Templier de Tyr.Chronique de Terre Sainte. The anonymous Chronique de Terre Sainte covers the period from 1131–1222 and is based on the Annales de le Terre Sainte. Its brief narrative serves as the beginning portion of Gestes des Chiprois. Philip of Novara's History. Philip of Novara was an Italian historian who wrote History of the War between the Emperor Frederick and Sir John of Ibelin, covering the period 1223–1242, and is included in Gestes des Chiprois, which also five poems written by Philip on particular episodes during the war. Philip's Le Livre de forme de plait is part of the Assizes of Jerusalem. Chronique du Templier de Tir. The Chronique du Templier de Tir is attributed to an unknown author referred to as the Templar of Tyre, and draws on Estoire d'Eracles through 1170 and his own experiences and oral testimony for the history through 1309. The work includes one of only two eyewitness accounts of the fall of Acre in 1291 and the trial of the Knights Templar in 1311.Templar of Tyre may be Gérard de Monréal, secretary to Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, who died at the siege.
Related histories and other works
Other histories and literary works with limited discussion of the Crusade but still of interest have been cited by modern historians. These works include annals and poems, primarily Italian, German and English, providing accounts of European actives prior to 1095. Some of these are presented below.Italian works Goffredo Malaterra. Goffredo Malaterra was a Benedictine monk and historian who wrote De Rebus Gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae Comitis et Roberti Guiscardi Ducis fratris eius which chronicles the Norman conquest of Italy in the mid-11th century, including Robert Guiscard. Related contemporaneous works include the poem Gesta Roberti Wiscardi by William of Apulia and L'Ystoire de li Normant and Chronicon by Amatus of Montecassino. Amatus of Montecassino. Amatus of Montecassino was a Benedictine monk and historian whose works L'Ystoire de li Normant and Chronicon are principal sources for the Norman conquest of Italy. Amatus provides an account of a rich man from Amalfi who in 1023 financed hospitals in Jerusalem and Antioch. Bariot Chronicles. The major chronicles of Bari and southern Italy are Annales Barenses, Annales Lupi Protospatharii and Anonymi Barensis Chronicon. Topics of the works include the Norman conquest of Italy and material on the First Crusade. Annales Beneventani. Annales Beneventani covers the history of the Santa Sophia monastery in Benevento from the time of Christ until 1128 in three editions. The later Annales Palidenses includes a history of Rome in the 11th and 12 centuries. Both include material on pope Paschal II. Annales Pisani. Bernardus Marago was an Italian noble from Pisa who wrote Annales Pisani, the civic annals of Pisa, covering topics that include the Pisan-Genoese expeditions to Sardina from 1015-1016 and the early history of Daimbert of Pisa. Landulph of Saint Paul. Landolph of Saint Paul, also known as Landulf Junior to distinguish him from Landulf of Milan, was an Italian historian who wrote Historia Mediolanensis concerning the events in Italy at the turn of the 12th century. Chronica Monasterii Casinensis. Chronica Monasterii Casinensis was a history of the monastery of Monte Cassino from 1075–1138, begun by Leo of Ostio and completed by Peter Diaconus. Romuald of Salerno. Romuald Guarna was archbishop of Salerno and wrote Chronicon sive Annales covering the history of southern Italy and Sicily from Creation until 1178. Cronichetta Lucchese. Cronichetta Lucchese is an Italian chronicle covering the history of Lucca from 752-1304. This may be the work quoted by Ferdinand Chalandon in his Histoire de la Première Croisade jusqu'à l'élection de Godefroi de Bouillon. In a letter from the clergy of Lucca, the despair of the Crusaders at the siege of Antioch in 1098 is described. Annales ianuesses. The Annales ianuenses are the official history of Genoa, covering the period 1099–1234. They were begun by Caffaro di Rustico after 1156 following his history of the First Crusade. In 1163, the work was continued by various officials and finished by a scribe named Ogerius. Peter of Eboli. Peter of Eboli was an Italian poet and chronicler whose Liber ad honorem Augusti, sive de rebus Siculis relates the death of William II of Sicily in 1189 and his succession by Tancred of Lecce. Richard of San Germano. Richard of San Germano was an Italian notary, later chamberlain to emperor Frederick II who wrote his Chronica regni Siciliae, covering the history of southern Italy from the death of William II of Sicily in 1189 until 1243. This is the principal source for the War of the Keys. Sequentia Andegavensis. Sequentia Andegavensis is a collection of hymns sung in Western Europe to celebrate the fall of Constantinople ' in 1204. Reprinted in P. Riant's, Exuviae. Salimbene di Adam. Salimbene di Adam was a Franciscan friar and chronicler whose main work Cronica covers Italian history from 1167-1287. The work makes extensive use of Sicard of Cremona's Chronica Universalis. He also wrote The Twelve Calamities of Emperor Frederick II, a critique of the emperor and questioning the crusading movement.'' Bartholomaeus of Neocastro. Bartholomaeus of Neocastro, known as Bartholomew, was an Italian jurist who wrote a chronicle Historia Sicula concerning the Kingdom of Sicily and Kingdom of Naples from the death of emperor Frederick II in 1250 until 1293. Jacobus de Auria. Jacobus de Auria wrote his Annales covering this history of Genoa from 1280–1294. They were continued through 1436 by the Castigatissimi Annali di Genova of Agostino Giustiniani.
German worksAnnales Altahenses. Annales Altahenses are a set of annals compiled at the Niederaltaich Abbey covering a period 708-1073. The work covers the German pilgrimage of 1064-1065 to Jerusalem. Cosmas of Prague. Cosmas of Prague was a Bohemian historian whose Chronica Boemorum covers Bohemian history from Creation until 1125, and includes an account of the Crusaders traversing of Bohemia and Hungary in 1096. Annales Palidenses. Annales Palidenses, also known as Pöhlder Chronik, are a set of annals written at Pöhlde Abbey in the later 12th century, based partially on the work of Honorius Augustodunensis, Ekkehard of Aura and Sigebert of Gembloux. The annals include an account of the First Crusade and the exploits of Conrad III of Germany during the Second Crusade. Helmold of Bosau. Helmold of Bosau was a Saxon historian whose Chronica Sclavorum is a chronicle of the northwestern Slavic tribes up to 1171. It was continued by Arnold of Lübeck. Otto of Sankt Blasien. Otto of Sankt Blasien (Saint Blaise) was a German chronicler who wrote his annals Ad librum VII chronici Ottonis Frisingensis episcopi continuatae historiae appendix sive Continuatio Sanblasian covering the period of German history from 1146–1209. Friedrich von Hausen. Frederick von Hausen was a German poet who accompanied Frederick I on the Third Crusade. He wrote five works based on his experiences and was one of the earliest of the minnesingers. He died at the battle of Philomelion of 1190. Wolfram von Eschenbach. Wolfram von Eschenbach was a German knight and minnesinger whose work including Parzival was an inspiration to Crusaders.Works from Tegernsee Abbey. Works from the German Tegernsee Abbey include the Expeditio Ierosolimitana, an epic poem about the First Crusade written by Bavarian monk Metellus of Tegernsee and songs by famed minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide.Albrecht von Johansdorf. Albrecht von Johansdorf was a minnesinger who wrote five recruitment songs for the Third Crusade..Caesarius of Heisterbach. Caesarius of Heisterbach was a Cistercian prior who wrote Dialogus miraculorum, a collection of miracle stories, popular because of the many stories related by returning Crusaders. Annales Claustroneoburgenses. Annales Claustroneoburgenses is an anonymous history of Klosterneuburg Monastery covers 1075–1139, continued until 1455 by the Annales Mellicenses. Annales Admontenses. Annales Admontenses are the annals of Admont Abbey, covering the period from Adam to 1139. It was continued by Annales Garstense, covering 1181–1257 and by Annales Mellicenses, covering 1123-1564. Topics covering include the 1170 earthquake in Syria and Peter II Győr, a Hungarian bishop who participated in the Fifth Crusade. Annales Colonienses Maximi. Annales Colonienses Maximi, also known as Chronica regum Coloniensis, is a German chronicle covering the years 576-1202, including an account of the Second Crusade and Christian cities damaged in 1170 by an earthquake. Chronica also includes an account of the Children's Crusade of 1212. The work relies on Ekkehard of Aura for the period 1095-1106. Annales Marbacenses. Annales Marbacenses, or the Marbach Annals, are from the Marbach Abbey covering the period from the 7th century until the 1240s. The earlier portion is derived from the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus of Otto of Freising and is combined with a later series of annals from Neuberg Abbey.
Norman and English worksGesta Normannorum Ducum. Gesta Normannorum Ducum was originally written by William of Jumièges covering the period through 1066, and later extended by Orderic Vitalis and Robert of Torigni through the death of Henry I of England in 1135. Robert of Torigni. Robert of Torigni, also referred to as Robert de Monte, was a Norman chronicler known for his Chronique de Robert de Torigni and for being the last contributor to Gesta Normannorum Ducum. His Chronique includes a description of the damage done by the 1170 Syrian earthquake and of the death of William II of Sicily. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals of English history from the birth of Christ until 1154, and includes material on English participation in the First Crusade, particularly that of Edgar Ætheling. Monitum in Subsequentia Carmina. Monitum in Subsequentia Carmina includes Songs of the Crusades and Songs of the Pilgrims written in 1188 by a member of the English royal court. They are found in Henry Savile's Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores post Bedam præcipui and later in the collection Poésies populaires latines antérieures au douzième siècle of Edelestand du Méril. Baldwin of Forde. Baldwin of Forde was Archbishop of Canterbury between 1185 and 1190 and accompanied Richard I of England on the Third Crusade. He left a large number of works including decretals concerning the church and English monarchy in the late 12th century.Joseph of Exeter. Joseph of Exeter was an English poet who accompanied his uncle, Baldwin of Forde, archbishop of Canterbury, on the Third Crusade. His account Antiocheis is mostly lost, but sections praising the warriors of Britain. including King Arthur, survive. He also wrote Poemata in De Josepho Exioniensi vel Iscano, edited by Jean-Jules Jusserand. John of Salisbury. John of Salisbury was bishop of Chartres and historian who wrote Historia Pontificalis quae Supersunt covering the years 1148–1152 while he was employed by pope Eugene III. It is a description of Western Europe during and after the Second Crusade. Chronicles of Ricardus Anglicus. Ricardus Anglicus, also known as Richard de Morins, was an English canon lawyer who began the Chronicles of Ricardus Anglicus, the annals of Dunstable Priory, in 1210. The material in the annales prior to 1202 is based on Ralph of Diceto's Abbreviationes chronicorum and Ymagines historiarum, and is extended to 1297 in Annales Monastici. Ordinacio de predications Crucis in Anglia. Ordinacio de predications Crucis in Anglia is a short handbook for preaching the Crusade, written in the early 13th century, for English audiences. Attributed to a Philippe of Oxford.Chronicle of Mailros. The Chronicle of Mailros is a history written by the monks of Melrose Abbey covering universal history from 745–1270. The material before the founding of the abbey in 1140 is based on the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Chronica of Roger of Howden. The Chronicle includes the oldest known account of the sealing of Magna Carta and records the solar eclipse of 1 May 1185. Annals of Chester. The Annals of Chester are also known as the Annales cestrienses or Chronicle of the abbey of St. Werburg at Chester. It is the work of anonymous monks of the Benedictine abbey of St. Werburgh's, in Chester, and is a chronicle from the Incarnation to 1297.Bartholomew of Cotton. Bartholomew of Cotton was a Benedictine monk from Cotton who was master of the cellar at the Friary of Norwich. He wrote his Historia Anglicana providing the history of Saxon and Norman kings through 1292. His work was extended by the Norwich Chronicle to 1298. Flores Historiarum. Flores Historiarum are a chronology associated with the Abbey of St. Albans covering the years from Creation until 1235, completed by English chronicler Roger of Wendover from a work begun by Roger of Howden. Continuations were later done by Matthew of Paris and William Rishanger. The work completed by Thomas Walsingham is known as the St. Albans Chronicle. John Capgrave. John Capgrave was an English historian, hagiographer and theologian. His Chronicle of England is chronology of history from the time of Adam until 1416.
Other works referenced in histories.Secretum Secretorum. Secretum Secretorum is an encyclopedic treatise believed to have originated with a Greek source, translated at least by the 9th century. A Latin translation was done by Philip of Tripoli c. 1232. Roger Bacon. Roger Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Opus Majus at the request of pope Clement IV, covering a broad set of topics in natural science and philosophy. Guy of Warwick. Guy of Warwick was a legendary English hero whose exploits we the subject of romances popular beginning in the 13th century. He is reputed to have made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and is erroneously regarded as real in some 15th century chronicles.
Other works of interest include Annales Romani, Historia ducum Venetorum, and those by Geoffrey the Lombard'..
Byzantine, Frankish Greek and Cypriot sources on the Crusades
The Byzantine Empire, subsequent Latin Empire of Constantinople, Frankish Greek states of the Frankokratia and the Kingdom of Cyprus offer a large number of sources on Crusades history, beginning with Alexios I Komnenos and his reign and continuing into the 14th century. Historiens grecs in RHC, edited by Carl B. Hase, includes translations of many of these documents as does Patrologia Graeco-Latina and Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae.''The'' ''Alexiad'' of Anna Komnene
Anna Komnene was a Byzantine princess and historian who wrote the seminal work The Alexiad in around 1148. The daughter of emperor Alexios I Komnenos, Anna's work covers the history of her father's reign and beyond, the years from 1081 to 1108. The work comprises 15 books and is categorized as:- Attacks on Byzantium by Robert Guiscard and the crowning of Alexios I
- Pecheneg invasions of Byzantium
- Relations with the Turks including the Seljuk Tzachas and the conspiracy of Nicephorus Diogenes
- The First Crusade and aftermath
- Attacks by Bohemond of Taranto
- Final excursions and death of Alexios I.
Other Byzantine, Latin Empire and Frankish Greek sources
Other references relevant to the Crusades are historical documents relating to Byzantium, before and after the time of Alexios I, the Latin Empire and Frankish Greece.Before the Komnenos eraChronicon Paschale. Chronicon Paschale is a 7th century Greek historical chronology of the world from the time of Adam until 627. The Chronicon includes an account of the Heraclian revolt against Byzantine emperor Phocas in 610. Antiochus Strategos. Antiochus Strategos was the author of La price de Jérusalem par les Peruses en 614 ''. The work, translated by Belgian historian Gérard Garitte, describes the 614 capture of Jerusalem by the Persian empire. It also provides an account of the return of the True Cross to Jerusalem in 630 by emperor Heraclius. Conjectures that Antiochus Strategos is the same person as Antiochus of Palestine, author of the Pandektes, remain unproven. Doctrina Jacobi nuper Baptizati. Doctrina Jacobi nuper Baptizati is an anonymous text written in Palestine between 634-640. It provides one of the first Western views of Islam. It describes how Byzantine emperor Heraclius ordered the baptism of the Jews of Jerusalem after he learned of their aid to the Persians after his victory at the battle of Nineveh in 627. Doctrina Jacobi also provides an account of the role Jews played in the loss of Jerusalem to the Muslims in 638. It appears in Patrologia Orientalis as La didascalie de Jacob, première assemblée and as Le synaxaire arabe Jacobite. Passio Sanctorum Sexaginta Martyrum. Passio Sanctorum Sexaginta Martyrum is an anonymous work that describes the first recorded instance of martyrdom of Christians by Muslims. During the 7th century Muslim conquest of the Holy Land, 60 Byzantine soldiers were executed in Gaza in 640 for their refusal to convert to Islam. The account of their martyrdom is in Analecta Bollandiana, edited by hagiographical scholar Hippolyte Delehaye. This account is combined with that of the martyrdom of Saint Florian in 304, and is also known as Passio LX Martyrum et Legenda Sancti Floriani. The incident is also related in Book of the Caliphs by an author known only as Thomas the Priest. Theophilos. Theophilos was the last Byzantine emperor to support iconoclasm. In 836, patriarchs Christopher I of Alexandria, Job of Antioch and Basil of Jerusalem sent the Letter of the three Melkite patriarchs to Theophilos, defending the generation of icons. Theophilos subsequently had Basil jailed. Nikephorus I of Constantinople. Nikephorus I was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 806-815. Nikephorus wrote several books in support of iconoclasm as well as the historical Opuscula Historica covering Byzantium from 602-769, including the battle of Yarmuk of 636 between the Byzantine empire and the Rashidun Caliphate. Theophanes the Confessor. Theophanes the Confessor was a Byzantine historian whose Chronographia covers the period 284-813. The work was continued to 961 by anonymous writers referred to as Scriptores post Theophanem. Theodosius of Jerusalem. Theodosius, patriarch of Jerusalem from 864–879, wrote to Ignatios of Constantinople on the expectations of peace with the Muslims, sending monks to Europe to collect funds for Jerusalem. Constantine VII. Constantine VII was Byzantine emperor from 913–959 and author of four books including De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae, describing the order of the Byzantine court. The document Three Treatises on Imperial Military Expeditions is an appendix. Included is a description of the capture of Aleppo by Nikephoros II Phokas in 962. Liutprand of Cremona. Liutprand of Cremona was an Italian historian whose works Antapodosis, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, covering 887–949, and Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana ad Nicephorum Phocam covering 968–969, are an important source of Byzantine politics of the 10th century. Agapius of Hierapolis. Agapius of Hierapolis, also known as Agapius of Mabourg, was a Christian Arab historian who Kitab al-'Unwan provides a history of the world from Creation until ca. 780. His account of Byzantine emperor Heraclius' invasion of Syria in the 7th century was likely a source for both Michael the Syrian and Nicephorus Gregoras. Michael Attaliates. Michael Attaliates was a Byzantine public servant and historian who wrote The History, a political and military history of the empire from 1034–1079. The work naturally praises emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, but also shows an affinity towards the general Alexios I. It includes a short biography of Norman adventurer Roussel de Bailleul. He also prepared a number of policy documents including Ordinance for the Poor House and Monastery. Michael Psellos. Michael Psellos was a Byzantine polymath and historian who wrote his Chronographia covering the emperors of the 11th century through Michael VII Doukas. Georgius Cedrenus. Georgius Cedrenus was a Byzantine historian whose Synopsis Historiarum covers the world from Creation until 1057. The work draws heavily on that of Theophanes the Confessor and on the Synopsis of Histories of Greek historian John Skylitzes. Deux Inédits Byzantins. Deux Inédits Byzantins sur les Azymites ay début du XIIme Siècle includes two anonymous works concerning the schism of 1054 and the rivalry between the patriarchs of Jerusalem and Antioch.
The period 1048-1204.Nicephorus Bryennius. Nicephorus Bryennius was a Byzantine general and historian married to Anna Komnene. His major work Historia covers Byzantium from 1057 to 1081. This ranges from the victory of Isaac I Komnenos over Michael VI to the dethronement of Nikephoros III Botaneiates by his father-on-law Alexios I Komnenos. Synopsis Chronicon. Synopsis Chronicon is a chronicle covering Byzantine history from the time of Adam through of the rule of Alexios I, continuing until the recapturing of Constantinople in 1261. The work is highly derivative including sources from the Annals of George Akropolites. The author has been speculated to be Theodore Skoutariotes, an opinion that is not universally shared. Also known as Synopsis Sathas. Theophylact of Ohrid. Theophylact of Ohrid was archbishop of Bulgaria who wrote his Epistolae concerning current affairs with the Bulgarians and the impact of constant Byzantine wars. Letter from Alexios I Komnenos. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos wrote a missive known as his Mousai to his son and successor John II Komnenos. Eustratius of Nicaea. Eustratius of Nicaea was metropolitan bishop of Nicaea who wrote On the Holy Ghost that includes his speeches that highlighted his support of Alexios I and opposition to Peter Chrysolan. Johannes Zonaras. Johannes Zonaras was a Byzantine chronicler who served under Alexios I. His Epitome Historiarum covers Byzantium from Creation until the death of Alexios I in 1118. John the Oxite. John the Oxite was Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch who exiled by Bohemond of Taranto in 1100. His treatises written while in exile were critical of Byzantium and in particular Alexios I. Theodore Prodromus. Theodore Prodromus was a Byzantine writer and poet whose Poemata includes some historically significant information about Manuel I Komnenos. Joannes Zonaras. Joannes Zonaras was a Byzantine theologian and chronicler who wrote Epitome Historiarum covering Byzantium from Creation until the death of Alexios I in 1118. Michael Glykas. Michael Glykas was Byzantine scholar who wrote a history of Byzantium from Creation until the death of Alexios I in 1118. He has been identified as Michael Sikidites. John Kinnamos. John Kinnamos (Cinnamus) was a Byzantine historian whose Epitome Historiarum is an extension of The Alexiad covering the years 1118–1176. This includes the defeat of Manuel I Komnenos by the Seljuks of Rûm at the battle of Myriokephalon in 1176. Niketas Choniates. Niketas Choniates (Nicetas) was a Byzantine historian who wrote Nicetæ Choniatæ Historia covering the period 1118–1207. His account of the sack of Constantinople in 1204 is particularly well-regarded. Nicholas Mesarites. Nicholas Mesarites was a Byzantine churchman and writer who was an eyewitness to the sack of Constantinople in 1204. His account of the carnage is presented in his work Opera. He also wrote Die Palastrevolution des Johannes Komnenos, an account of the attempted coup of John Komnenos the Fat in 1200/1201. George Acropolita. George Acropolita was a Greek historian whose Annals cover the period from the loss of Constantinople in 1204 until her recovery in 1281. It is regarded as an extension of Nicetæ Choniatæ Historia.
After the Sack of Constantinople.Thomas the Archdeacon. Thomas the Archdeacon, also known as Thomas of Spalato, was the greatest of medieval Croatian historians. His Historia Salonitana atque Spalatinorum pontificum covers Croatian history up to the 13th century. Thomas' work covers the siege of Esztergom in 1241 as part of the Mongol invasion of Europe. George Akropolites. George Akropolites was a Byzantine historian whose Annals is a continuation of the Nicetæ Choniatæ Historia and covers the period from the loss of Constantinople in 1204 until its recovery by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261. Germanus II of Constantinople. Germanus II was patriarch of Constantinople from 1222–1240. His account of the Greeks martyred at Kyrenia by the Ibelins in 1231 is recounted by the Narrative of the thirteen holy fathers burnt by the Latins, in Constantine Sathas' Medieval Library. George Pachymeres. George Pachymeres was a Byzantine historian whose history De Michaele et Andronico Palaeologis was a continuation of Akropolites' work for the years 1255–1308, including an account of the recapture of Constantinople in 1261. Chronicle of the Morea. The Chronicle of the Morea is a 14th-century history covering the Franks establishing Crusader states in Greece from 1202–1292. The work includes a discussion of the civil organization of the Principality of Achaea.Henry of Valenciennes. Henry of Valenciennes was a chronicler of Henry of Flanders, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, from 1206–1216. His work is regarded as a continuation of that of Geoffrey of Villehardouin.Benedetto I Zaccaria. Benedetto I Zaccaria was a Genoese admiral who attempted to establish Tripoli as a Genoese colony over the objections of the ruling commune, with Lucia of Tripoli confirming the privileges of both, as discussed in his Mémoire. John VI Kantakouzenos. John VI Kantakouzenos was Byzantine emperor from 1347-1354 and wrote a four-volume Historia that includes an account of Godfrey of Bouillon's arrival in Constantinople in 1096. Nicephorus Gregoras. Nicephorus Gregoras was a Byzantine theologian and historian who wrote his 37-volume Byzantine History covering the years 1204–1359. Laonikos Chalkokondyles. Laonikos Chalkokondyles was a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens whose Proofs of Histories encompasses the last 150 years of the Byzantine empire, covering 1298–1463. Doukas. Doukas was a chronicler of the last of the Byzantine emperors, Constantine XI Palaiologos, from 1449–1453. His Historia byzantina'' covers the decline and fall of the Byzantine empire.
Arabic, Persian and other sources
The major historical works written in Arabic or Persian, by Moslem or Coptic Christian authors, include the foundational chronicles of ibn Qalanisi and ibn al-Athir for the First Crusade and after, as well as other chronicles, biographies, reference material, legal documents, travel accounts and literature. Modern historians including Aziz Suryal Atiya, Carole Hillenbrand, Francesco Gabrieli, Clifford E. Bosworth, Niall Christie and Farhad Daftary have produced numerous work that also provide extensive bibliographies of Arabic and Persian sources. This section also includes Mongolian-language sources.''The Damascus Chronicle'' of ibn Qalanisi
Ibn al-Qalanisi, a descendant of Banū Tamim, was a politician and historian in Damascus who wrote Dhail or Mudhayyal Ta'rikh Dimashq covering the period 1056–1160. During that time, Damascus was ruled by Seljuks, Burids and finally Zengids. It is regarded as a continuation of Hilal al-Sabi's History which ends in 1056. The major version available in translation was compiled and edited by H. A. R. Gibb and provides a yearly chronicle from 1096 to 1160. The rulers of Damascus during the chronicle include Duqaq, Toghtekin, his son Taj al-Mulk Buri and Nur ad-Din, son of Zengi. Accounts of the siege of Tyre in 1111–1112, the Assassins, and Crusader interactions with the Fatimids are noteworthy. Ibn al-Qalanisi was the first Arabic chronicler of the Crusades to have widespread usage of suffixed curses to his mentions of the Franks''Complete History'' by ibn al-Athir
Ali ibn al-Athir was an Arab or Kurdish historian whose family settled in Mosul in 1181 during the rule of the Zengid emir Izz al-Din Mas'ud. He wrote his masterpiece Complete Work of History, also known as The Complete History, The Perfect or al-Kāmil fi'l-Ta'rīkh, beginning in 1231. His work is chronological, and includes the Creation, the pre-Islamic world of Arabs, Persians, Romans and Jews, the caliphate and successor dynasties, and the Crusades from 1096 to 1231. The work draws heavily on that of ibn al-Qalanisi. D. S. Richards, Emeritus Fellow of Arabic at Oxford, translated portions of ibn al-Athir as part of Ashgate Publishing's Crusade Texts in Translation. They are titled under the general descriptor The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fīʾl-taʾrīkh, and include the following three parts:- The Years 491–541/1097–1146. The Coming of the Franks and the Muslim Response
- The Years 541–589/1146–1193. The Age of Nur al-Din and Saladin
- The Years 589–629/1193–1231. The Ayyūbids after Saladin and the Mongol Menace.
Other Arabic historical sources on the Crusades
Selected Arabic sources for the pre-Crusades and Crusades eras include the following.Al-Atharibi. al-Atharibi was an Aleppan physician and bureaucrat who wrote a now lost Sirat al-Ifranj. Some fragments are preserved in Ibn al-Adim.Al-Azimi. Al-Azimi was an Aleppan chronicler of Syria, writing Al Muwassal 'ala al-Asl al-Mu'assal, a history of Syria, and Ta'rikh Halab. His work influenced other historians such as ibn al-Athir and covered the Mirdasid rule of the city and the rise of the Seljuk Aksungur al-Hajib, father of Zengi. Usama ibn Munqidh. Usama ibn Munqidh was Syrian from the Banū Munqidh dynasty of Shaizar who served under Zengi, Nur ad-Din, Saladin as well as the Fatimids and Artuqids throughout his 50-year career. His most famous work was Kitab al-I'tibar written as a gift to Saladin in 1183, and includes numerous accounts of the Crusaders. The English translation by Philip K. Hitti is An Arab-Syrian Gentlemen in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah ibn-Munqidh. Ibn Asakir. Ibn Asakir al-Dimashqi al-Shafi`i al-Ash`ari was an Islamic scholar and historian from Damascus. He was a prolific author, mostly of religious texts, and wrote his Tarikh Dimashiq under the patronage of Nur ad-Din who built the madrasa Dar al-Hadith in his name in 1170.Al-Isfahani. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani was a Persian historian who lived in Mosul and was in the service of Saladin. His major works were a chronicle al-Fath al-Qussīfī'l-Fath al-Qudsī covering the period from 1187–1189, and al-Barq al-Shāmī, an autobiography that extolls Saladin's military expeditions. The latter was used in The Book of Two Gardens of Abu Shama. Ibn al-Jawzi. Ibn al-Jawzi was an Arab polymath and historian who is regarded as the most prolific Islamic writer of all time, serving four Abbasid caliphs beginning with al-Mustadi. Among his works is Al-Muntadham fi tarikh al-muluk wa-'l-umam.Diya al-Din al-Maqdisi. Diya al-Din al-Maqdisi was a Muslim scholar and historian who accompanied Saladin on his quests. He wrote of the life of Muslims under Frankish rule in his biographical dictionary, Karāmāt Mashā'ikh al-Ard al-Muqaddasa. He was an early supporter of jihad against the Franks.Al-Juwaini. Sa'd al-Din ibn Hamawiya al-Juwaini was an Arab historian who wrote Mémoires de Sa'd al-Din, a history of the Ayyubid civil war in Syria from 1239-1243 and the reign of as-Salih Ayyub and his cousin al-Jawad in Damascus. Some material in Mémoires was used by Sibt ibn al-Jawzi. Sibt ibn al-Jawzi. Sibt ibn al-Jawzi was an Islamic preacher and historian who wrote Mirat az-Zeman, a lengthy encyclopedic biographical history covering Moslem history through 1256, with the material on the 12th century mostly derivative of other authors. Kamal al-Din. Kamal al-Din ibn al-Adim, also known as Kemal ad-Din or by his family name of Ibn al-Adim, was an Aleppan historian who wrote Bughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh Ḥalab, a biographic study of the rulers of Aleppo through 1260. Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad. Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad (Beha ed-Din) was an Arab historian who counted Saladin as among his close friends. His biography of the sultan was al-Nawādir al-Sultaniyya wa'l-Maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyy is regarded as seminal and also provides key insight into the Third Crusade. He also wrote an Islamic legal treatise The Refuge of Judges from the Ambiguity of Judgements as well as The Virtues of the Jihad. Much of the knowledge of Baha ad-Din comes from his biography in ibn Khallikan's work. Būstān al-jāmi. Būstān al-jāmiʿ li-jamīʿ tawārīkh al-zamān is a short chronicle of Syria from the 6th through 12th centuries by an anonymous Arab writer covering at least through 1186. Būstān was written in Aleppo in 1196-1197 and may share a lost source with ibn Abi Tayyi's Universal History. Topics covered include the battle of Azaz of 1125, the siege of Edessa of 1146, the captivity and death of Joscelin II of Edessa in 1159 and the captivities of Raymond III of Tripoli and Reynald of Châtillon by Nur ad-Din. Ibn Wasil. Jamāl al-Din Muhammad ibn Wasil was a Syrian historian who wrote Mufarrij al-kurūb, a history of the Ayyubid dynasty through the rise of Baibars in 1260. Ibn Wasil dictated the work to his scribe Nūr al-Din 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Rahīm who went on to write his own history. Ibn Abi'l-Dam. Ibn Abi'l-Dam was Syrian jurist and historian who worked under al-Muzaffar II Mahmud, emir of Hama. His works are derivative of either Būstān al-jāmi or a common source.Nūr al-Din 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Rahīm. Nūr al-Din 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Rahīm was a Syrian historian who served as principal secretary to al-Muzaffar III Mahmud, emir of Hama, and scribe to ibn Wasil. He wrote his own history Dhayl mufarrij al-kurūb fī akhbār banī Ayyūb covering the years 1261-1296, mostly on events near Hama. He also recorded Mamluk activities in Syrian through at least 1285.Ibn Abi Tayyi. Ibn Abi Tayyi was an Aleppan historian whose Universal History is mostly lost. Excerpts of his material is included in other works including the Sīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn used in The Book of Two Gardens of Abu Shama. Abu Shama. Abū Shāma Shihāb al-Dīn al-Maqdisī was a chronicler of 13th century Damascus thirteenth-century Damascus. He is best known for his histories Kitāb al-rawḍatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn al-Nūriyya wa-l-Ṣalāḥiyya and al-Dhayl ʿalā l-rawḍatayn. The Book of the Two Gardens consists mainly of transcripts from ibn Qalanisi, ibn al-Athir, Baha ad-Din Shaddad, al-Isfahani, ibn Abi Tayyi and the rasāʾil of al-Fadil. He also prepared a summary of ibn Asakir's Tarikh Dimashiq. Ibn Khallikan. Ibn Khallikan was an Arab Islamic scholar who wrote a biographical dictionary Wafayat al-ayan wa-anba al-zaman which documented the prominent people of the time, including Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad. It was written between 1256–1274. Ibn Taymiyyah. Ibn Taymiyyah was an Arab polymath and prolific writer who was personally involved in the battle of Marj al-Saffar in 1303. He was a strong supporter of the use of jihad in dealing with the enemies of Islam. Among his many works is al-Jawāb al-Ṣaḥīḥ li-man baddala dīn al-Masīh.Abu'l-Fida. Abu'l-Fida (Abu'l-Feda) was a Kurdish politician, geographer and historian from Syria who had descended from Najm ad-Din Ayyub, father of Saladin. He wrote numerous works including Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar, a history called An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race, a continuation of ibn al-Athir's The Complete History, through 1329, and texts Taqwim al-Buldan and Kunash, concerning geography and medicine, respectively. Ibn Muyessar. Ibn Muyessar, also known as Taj al-Din Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad or ibn Moyessar, was an Egyptian historian who wrote Textes Arabes et ètudes Islamiques concerning Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Egypt. The extract included in RHC includes historical material on caliphs al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, al-Aziz Billah and al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, viziers al-Afdal Shananshah and al-Ma'mum al-Bata'ihi, and Mamluk sultan Baibars. Al-Jazari. Al-Jazari Muhammad Ibrahim ibn Abu Bakr was an Arab historian who wrote Chronique de Damas d'al-Jazari, Années 689-698 AH, an account of the Mamluk rule in Damascus from 1290-1299. The Chronique includes an account of the march of sultan al-Ashraf Khalil from Cairo to Damascus in 1291, where he left his harem, and on to the siege of Acre of 1291. Anonymous Mamluk Chronicle. An anonymous work known as Contributions to the history of the Mamlūkensultane provides a history of the Mamluk sultanate for the years 1291–1340. Known as the Zetterstéen Chronicle after Swedish orientalist Karl V. Zetterstéen. Ibn at-Tiqtaqa. Ibn at-Tiqtaqa was the nickname of an Iraqi historian Jalāl-ad-Dīn who wrote the compendium of Islamic history Al-Fakhri. Ibn Khaldūn. Ibn Khaldūn was Arab historian whose work Kitāb al-ʻIbar includes three parts: al-Muqaddimah a universal history of empires; a world history of events up to 1337; and a historiography of works from Arabic Africa. Badr al-Din al-Ayni. Badr al-Din al-Ayni, known as al-Aini, was an Arab Islamic scholar who wrote his The Necklace of Pearls covering the Ayyubid and Mamluk sultanates from 1226, with most of the early work derived from previous histories. Abu'l-Mahāsin. Abu'l-Mahāsin Yūsuf was a student of al-Makrizi who wrote a biography of Saladin referred to as Anecdotes and good habits of the life of the Sultan Youssof. His Nodjoum az-Zahireh'' is extracted in RHC and covers the years 1098–1157 although his chronology differs from the more accepted one of ibn al-Athir. Abu'l Mahāsin and ibn al-Athir both offer accounts of the expeditions of emperor Basil II to Syria in the late 10th century. Al-Makrizi. Al-Makrizi was an Egyptian historian, also known as al-Maqrisi, descended from the Fatimids who wrote extensively on the caliphates and sultanates that ruled the country. Some of his material appears to be based on the works of ibn Muyessar and ibn Abd al-Zahir. Other Arab Historians of the Crusades. These include ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi, ibn Abd al-Zahir, al-Harawi, Ibn Zuraiq, al-Fadil, as-Shaibani, ibn ad-Dahhan, ibn at-Tawair and Ismail al-Jazari..Coptic Christian sources
Sources of the Crusades by Coptic Christians written in Arabic include the following. Other works can be found in CSCO Scriptores Coptici and Bibliotheca Hagiographica Orientalis.John of Nikiû. John of Nikiû was an Egyptian Coptic bishop who wrote his Chronicles covering from the time of Adam until the Moslem conquest of EgypPersian sources
The Persian sources shown below are generally concerned with the Nizari Isma'ili State, established in Persian at Alamut Castle in 1092, the relations with neighboring Arab and Turkic empires such as the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and Khwarazmians, and the Mongol conquest of Persia beginning in 1219.Chronicle of Se'ert. Chronicle of Se'ert, also known as Histoire nestorienne, is a Persian ecclesiastical history by an anonymous Nestorian writer covering roughly the period 251-650. Elijah of Nisibis. Elijah of Nisibis, also known as Elias of Nisibin, was a Nestorian cleric whose work Chronography provides a history of the Holy Land through 1018, including the Sasanian empire and the conquest of Jerusalem by the Muslims. Miskawayh. Abu Ali Ahmad Miskawayh was a Persian historian who wrote The Experiences of the Nations and The Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Miskawayh presents an account of emperor Nikephoros II Phokas' and the Byzantine conquest of Cilicia in 964-965, defeating Sayf al-Dawla, Hamdanid emir of Aleppo. He also wrote the Tajárib al-Umam, a work on philosophical ethics, included in The Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Hassan-i Sabbah. Hassan-i Sabbah was the Persian founder of the Assassins and first ruler of the Nizari Isma'ili State that operated throughout Persian and Syria. The Assassins' first victim was Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk. Sabbah's autobiography Sarguzasht-e Sayyidnā has not survived but was available to other scholars including Ata-Malik Juvayni and Rashid al-Din. The Assassins were viewed as advantageous to the Crusaders in the early 12th century, particularly Tancred, and detrimental to their Muslim foes. Later activities were not so beneficial, losing de facto King of Jerusalem, Conrad of Montferrat in 1192 and Philip of Montfort of Tyre in 1270 to Assassins. Nizam al-Mulk. Nizam al-Mulk was a Persian scholar and vizier to Seljuk sultans Alp Arslan and Malik-Shah I. He was the founder of the Nezamiyeh schools and author of Siyāsatnāmeh also known as Siyar al-mulûk, a guide to the administration of the Seljuk empire, written in the mirrors for princes genre. He was the first victim of Hassan-i Sabbath's Assassins. Ibn al-Malāḥimī. Ibn al-Malāḥimī was a Khwarazmian Islamic scholar who authored a number of religious texts including al-Muʿtamad fī uūl ̣al-dīn, al-Fāʾiq fī l-uūl, Tuḥfat al-mutakallimīn fī l-radd ʿalā l-falāsifa and al-Tajrīd.Al-Shahrazuri. Al-Shahrazuri was a Persian historian who wrote Nuzhat al arwâḥ wa rawḍat al-afrâḥ, a compilation of biographies of notable scholars of 13th-century Persia.Ata-Malik Juvayni. Ata-Malik Juvayni was a Persian historian who wrote Tarīkh-i Jahān-gushā, an account of the Mongol Empire. The work describes the Ilkhanate as well as the Assassins of the Nizari Isma'ili State. After the Mongol destruction of the Nizaris, Juvayni had access to the archives of the sect, drawing from them for his history before destroying them. Abu Firas. Abu Firas Ibn Qadi Nasr ibn Jawshan wrote the only known Isma'ili biography of Assassin master Rashid ad-Din Sinan, the hagiographic work Noble Word of Rashid ad Din. The work was translated by Stanislas Guyard in Un grand maître des Assassins au temps du Saladin, and includes a description of the Assassins' attempts on Saladin's life in 1176. Ibn Bibi. Ibn Bibi was a Persian historian whose work el-Evâmirü'l-Alâiyye fi'l-umûri'l-Alâiyye was written at the request of Ata-Malik Juvayni. The history covers the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm from the period 1192–1280 and was presented to then sultan Kaykhusraw III. Rashid-al-Din. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani was a Jewish-turned-Islamic physician and historian who was vizier to the Ilkhan Ghazan whose Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh is a history of the Mongols from the time of Adam until 1311. The books include History of the Mongols, regarding the Khanate conquests from Genghis Khan through that of Ghazan. They also include the History of the Franks through 1305, based on sources such as Italian explorer Isol the Pisan and the Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum of Martin of Opava. A third part on geography has been lost. Wassaf. Wassaf was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. His history, Tajziyat al-amṣār wa-tazjiyat al-a'ṣār is a continuation of Ata-Malik Juvayni's Tarīkh-i Jahān-gushā whose account of the rise of the Mongol Empire ended in 1257.Hamdallah Mustawfi. Hamdallah Mustawfi was a Persian historian and geographer whose work Ḏayl-e Tāriḵ-e gozida is a compendium of world history from Creation until 1329 and is dedicated to the son of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. His work on geography Nozhat al-qolub may be derived from Rashid-al-Din's lost work.''De modo Sarracenos extirpandi. Guillaume Adam was a missionary and later archbishop of Soltaniyeh, Persia. '' He wrote De modo Sarracenos extirpandi detailing his approach for the West to defeat the Byzantine empire and the Ilkhanids. He may also have written Directorium ad passagium faciendum, a Crusade proposed to Philip VI of France. Omar Khayyam. Omar Khayyam was a Persian polymath who was the author of numerous mathematical, scientific and poetic works. Khayyam went to work in the service of Nizam al-Mulk, vizier to Malik-Shah I, in 1075 and later worked for Ahmad Sanjar in Merv. He is recognized in historical works by al-Isfahani and al-Shahrazuri. In his translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, poet Edward Fitzgerald claimed a friendship among Khayyam, Hassan-i Sabbah and Nizam al-Mulk which is most certainly false.Selçukname. Selçukname is a term used for a variety of chronicles concerning the history of the Seljuk empire, written primarily in Persian. Many are found in Textes realties à l'histoire des Seldjouqides, Paris. The most prominent of these is el-Evâmirü'l-Alâiyye fi'l-umûri'l-Alâiyye by ibn Bibi.Related Arabic-language works
Other historical, legal or literary works that have relevance to the Crusades include the following:Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami. Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami was a Damascene historian who was among the first to preach jihad against the crusading Franks in his Kitāb al- Jihād. He is among the first to use suffixed curses in describing the Franks.Ibn Tahir of Caesarea. Abū l'Fadl ibn al-Qaisaran, also known as ibn Tahir of Caesarea, was an Arab historian and poet who wrote verse extolling the virtues of Sunni Islam.Al-Abiwardi. Abu Muzaffar Muhammad al-Abiwardi was an Arab poet and historian who was in the service of one of the sons of Nizam al-Mulk. His historical work was concerning Abbasid caliphs al-Muqtadi and al-Mustazhir. In 1104, he took charge of the Nezamiyeh at Isfahan. He fell out of favor and was poisoned by Seljuk sultan Muhammad I Tapar. His book of poems Diwān containing scathing attacks on the Crusaders were reprinted by ibn al-Athir.Abu Bakr ibn al-Dawadari. Abu Bakr ibn al-Dawadari was the son of a Mamluk military officer and historian who wrote Kanz al-Durar wa-Jami' al-Ghurar that includes an account of the battle of Ayn Jalut in 1260.Ibn al-Furat. Ibn al-Furat was an Egyptian historian who wrote the universal history Taʾrīkh al-duwal wa 'l-mulūk. Only the portions after 1106 were completed. Al-Maqrizi. Al-Maqrizi was an Egyptian historian who wrote extensively of the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties. His many works include Itti'āz al-Ḥunafā' bi-Akhbār al-A'immah al-Fāṭimīyīn al-Khulafā and ''History of the Ayyubit and Mameluke Rulers.''Mongolian sources
The references cite only two original Mongolian-language sources for the Crusades, which are the French and German language translation of the same source. Available descriptions of both translations are presented below. Original Mongol sources and later references on the Mongols are found in the Select Bibliography of A History of the Crusades, pp. 553 and 653, respectively.Histoire Secrète des Mongols. Histoire Secrète des Mongols by Yuan Ch'ao Pi Shih is the oldest surviving literary work in Mongolian, describing the history of the Mongols from 1241. The work was discovered by Russian sinologist Palladius Kafarov and first translations by Erich Haenisch and later Paul Pelliot. Die geheime Geschichte der Mongolen. Die geheime Geschichte der Mongolen aus einer mongoleischen Niederschrift des Jahres 1241 von der Insel Kode'e im Keluren-Fluss was translated by German sinologist Erich Haenisch. The Secret History of the Mongols is Mongolia's first literary work and tells the story of Genghis Khan's clan. It was written after his death in 1227 and presumably presented at the Mongolian Diet, the Kuriltai, which Ögedei Khan held in 1240. The author is unknown, but in all probability comes from the court of Ögedei. The author is possibly Schigichutuchu, Ögedei's adoptive brother. .Relevant Persian and Western sources on the Mongolian empire include Juvayni's Tarīkh-i Jahān-gushā, Pian del Carpine's Ystoria Mongalorum, Benedict of Poland's Hystoria Tartarorum and The Travels of Marco Polo, described elsewhere.
Armenian, Syriac and Georgian sources
Historical sources from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, including the Bagratuni dynasty, Christian historians writing in the Syriac language in the Levant, and the Kingdom of Georgia, under the Bagrationi dynasty, are described below.The ''Chronicle'' of Matthew of Edessa
Matthew of Edessa was an Armenian historian from Edessa. His history Chronicle covers the first half of the 9th century through second half of the 12th. The work is in three parts. The first part covers the period 951–1051. The second covers 1051–1101, and the third covers up to 1129, with some material up to 1136 that may have been done by a collaborator. While the first two parts are a broader history of Byzantine and Caucusus affairs, the third part focuses exclusively on Edessa and its environs. Two parts of the Chronicle have received particular attention. The first is a letter from emperor John I Tzmiiskes to king Ashot III of Armenia in 975 and the second is a discourse from exiled king Gagik II of Armenia to Constantine X Doukas after 1045 on the divergence of the Greek and Armenian churches. The work was continued after his death, believed to be during the siege of Edessa, by Gregory the Priest.Other Armenian sources
Other sources of Armenian history in addition to Matthew of Edessa include the following.Sebeos. Sebeos was an Armenian bishop and historian. The work History of Heraclius has been attributed to him. The History chronicles Armenia from the end of the 5th century until 881. It includes the legend of Armenia's founding by the legendary Hayk, Sasanian Armenia, relations with Byzantine emperor Heraclius, and the Islamic conquest of Armenia in 661. Aristaces of Lastivert. Aristaces of Lastivert was an Armenian historian whose work History: About the Sufferings Visited Upon by Foreign Peoples Living Around Us discusses Armenian relations with Byzantium and Georgian, as well as the Seljuk invasions of the 11th century. Gregory the Priest. Gregory the Priest was an Armenian priest from Kaysun who wrote Chronique de Grégoire le Prètre, a continuation of Mathew of Edessa's Chronicle, to cover Armenian history from 1136–1162. The Chronique incorporates Basil the Doctor's Oraison. Nerses Shnorhall. Nerses Shnorhall, also known as Nerses IV the Gracious, was Catholicos of Armenia from 1166–1173. His poem Voghb Yedesyo has modest historical interest. Following the fall of Jerusalem, his successor Gregory IV Dgha wrote a similar poem Elégie sur la Prise de Jérusalem '', again with limited historical significance. Nerses of Lambron. Nerses of Lambron, nephew of Nerses Shnorhall, was archbishop of Tarsus and author of numerous works on ecclesiastical history. Those with particular historical relevance include his Mediation of the Institution of the Church and the Master of the Mass and Letter to Leo II, King of Armenia, both excerpted in RHC. Samuel of Ani. Samuel of Ani also known as Samuel Anec'i was an Armenian priest and historian from Ani whose Universal Chronicle covers Armenian history from the time of Adam until 1180. He was a student of Hovhannes Imastaser, an Armenian polymath whose biography may have been written by Kirakos of Gandzaketsi. Basil the Doctor. Basil the Doctor, also known as Barsegh, was the Armenian chaplin of Baldwin of Marash. After Baldwin's death at the siege of Edessa of 1146, Basil wrote the eulogy entitled Oraison Funèbre de Baudouin for his patron. Kirakos of Gandzaketsi. Kirakos Gandzaketsi, also known as Cyriacus of Ganja, was an Armenian historian whose History of Armenia covers the period from the 3rd century to the 12th century. The work includes accounts of the subjugation of the Armenians by Turkic and Mongol invaders, in particular Abaqa Khan. He also wrote The Journey of Haithon, King of Little Armenia, To Mongolia and Back about the travels of Hethum I of Armenia to the Mongolian court and possibly a biography of Hovhannes Imastaser. Vardan Areweic'i. Vardan Areweic'i also known as Vartan the Great or Vardan of the East was an Armenian historian whose work History of the World covers the period from Creation until 1264 when he was sent by Hethum I of Armenia on a mission to Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan. Vahram of Edessa. Vahram of Edessa, also known as Vahram Rabuni, was a monk who, as secretary to Leo II of Armenia, wrote his Chronique Rimée de la Petite Arménie covering Armenian history from the time of Ashot I of Armenia until the death of Leo II in 1289. His work discusses Constantine II, Ruben III, Thoros II, Leo I, and queen Isabella among others. Sempad the Constable. Sempad the Constable, also known as Smbat Sparapet, was an Armenian noble and brother of Hethum I. He wrote Chronique du Royaume de Petite Armenie covering Armenian history through 1270. He also translated the Assizes of Antioch into French. Continuation of Sempad's Chronique. The continuation and ending of Sempad the Constable's Chronique du Royaume de Petite Armenie was anonymously authored and covered the period from Sempad's death until th 1330s. Kirakos Gandzaketsi. Kirakos Gandzaketsi was an Armenian historian who wrote his History of Armenia, a summary of events from the 4th to the 13th century.Mekhitar of Airavang. Mekhitar of Airavang, also known as Mxit'ar of Ayrivank', was an Armenian monk known for his work Chronological History covering through 1289. Chant Populaire. An anonymous popular song called Ballad on the captivity of Leo describes the captivity of Leo II of Armenia following the battle of Mari in 1266. Historical Poem of Hethum II. Hethum II of Armenia composed Poeme de Hethoum II, Roi d'Arménie, a short chronicle of Armenian Cilicia, published in 1308. The work was subsequently included in some Armenian Bibles. Hayton of Corycus. Hayton of Corycus, also known as Hethum of Gorigos, was an Armenian noble and historian whose La Flor des estoires de la terre d'Orient concerns the Muslim conquests and Mongol invasion. Mekhithar de Daochir. Mekhithar de Daochir, also known as Mxit'ar of Tašir, wrote an account called Relation of the Conference held with the Papal Legate, presumably about a meeting with Armenian Catholicos Constantine I of Cilicia in Acre in 1262. Directorium ad passagium faciendum. The Directorium ad passagium faciendum is a Latin text written in 1332 attributed either to a Dominican priest named Burcard or to Guillaume Adam. The objective of the work was to persuade Philip VI of France to embark on a Crusade to conquer Serbian-occupied Albania. Mardiros de Crimée. Mardiros de Crimée, the Martyr of Crimea, wrote Liste Rimée des Souverains de la Petite Arménie about the Rubenid dynasty from Ruben I of Armenia through Leo V of Armenia who ruled through 1375.Jean Dardel. Jean Dardel was a French friar who was an advisor to Leo V of Armenia and wrote a chronicle of Armenian history called Chronique d'Arménie that covers the 14th century. Minor sources. The include works in Documents arméniens of RHC by Gregory IV Dgha, entitled Elégie sur la Prise de Jérusalem, and works presented in CSCO Scriptores Armenaici.Syriac sources
Several historic sources of the Crusades were written in the Syriac language by scholars belonging to the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Church of the East. The works of Sebastian Brock, the leading scholar on Syriac language sources, provide additional information.Early Syriac Chronicles. Early Syriac chronicles include the lost chronicle of patriarch Dionysius I Telmaharoyo ; the anonymous Chronicle of 813, covering the years 754-813; and the Chronicle of 846. These works appear to be unrelated, but the Chronicle of 813 and the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian may have a common source for the period before 813.Basil bar Shumna. Basil bar Shumna was metropolitan Bishop of Edessa in the Syriac Orthodox Church beginning in 1143 who wrote a history of Edessa covering the period from 1118–1169/1171. His work was used in both the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian and the Chronicle of 1234. The Chronicle of Michael the Syrian. Michael the Syrian, also known as Michael the Great, was patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church and author of his Chronicle in Syriac covering history of the world from Creation until 1195 and includes material from writings of Basil bar Shumna. Chronicle of 1234. The Chronicle of 1234, also known as the Anonymous Syriac Chronicle, is a history of Syria and Armenia from Creation until 1234. The work includes material from writings of Basil bar Shumna. The author also provides a first-hand account of the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187, later joining the staff of the maphrian of the Syriac Orthodox Church, likely Gregorios Jacob. Bar Hebraeus. Bar Hebraeus, also known as Gregory bar Ebroyo or by his Latin name Abulpharagius, was a scientist and historian who served as maphrian of the Syriac Orthodox Church at Mosul from 1264–1286. He wrote numerous works including Chronicon Syriacum and Chronicon Ecclesiasticum'' covering political/civil and ecclesiastical history from Creation until the later 1280s.Georgian sources
The Kingdom of Georgia and the ruling Bagrationi dynasty played an important role in the history of the Crusades, primarily engaging with the Byzantine empire and dominant Muslim sultanates ruling in the area. Georgia had eight monasteries in Jerusalem in the 12th century and so an interest in the Holy Land, and fought regularly with the Artuqids and Seljuks. The major Georgian historical sources include the following.Sumbat Davitis Dze. Sumbat Davitis Dze was a Georgian historian who wrote The Life and Tale of the Bagratids, a history of the Bagrationi dynasty from Biblical king David through 1030.Ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi. Ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi was a historian from Mayyafariqin who wrote Ta'rikh Mayyafariqin wa-Amid a history that concentrates on the Artuqid dynasty, particularly Ilghazi and his victory over Roger of Salerno at the battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119. The narrative then provides an account information on the Bagrationi dynasty from 1121–1163. This includes an account of the battle of Didgori in 1121 in which David IV of Georgia defeated the Muslim armies led by Ilghazi. Ibn al-Azraq served under the subsequent kings Demetrius I and George III. The Georgian Chronicles. The Georgian Chronicles are a compendium of medieval texts from the 9th through 14th centuries describing the history of the Kingdom of Georgia. The original works covered the period from Creation through 786. Later this was extended to the period 1008–1125, covering the Bagrationi dynasty from the rule of Bagrat III of Georgia through that of David IV of Georgia. The chronicles include The Life and Tale of the Bagratids, authored by Sumbat Davitis Dze, History of the King of Kings, Tamar, the life of Tamar of Georgia, and Chronicle of a Hundred Years, covering the years 1212–1318. Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography. The work Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography by S. H. Rapp, Jr., is an examination of early Georgian texts and their Eurasian influences, and covers the early Bagrationi dynasty.The Holy Land: pilgrimage, relics and geography
Much of the context of histories of the Crusades comes from accounts of pilgrims to the Holy Land, relics found by travelers and Crusaders, and descriptions of the geography of the area. The Travelogues of Palestine identify many of these accounts and Documenta Lipsanographica from Volume 5 of Historiens occidentaux provides a collection of accounts of Holy relics''.''Accounts of travel to the Holy Land and the Far East
Pilgrims, missionaries and other travelers to the Holy Land have documented their experiences through accounts of travel and even guides of sites to visit. Many of these have been recognized by historians, for example the travels of ibn Jubayr and Marco Polo. Some of the more important travel accounts are listed here. Many of these are also of relevance to the study of historical geography and some can be found in the publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (PPTS) and Corpus Scriptorum Eccesiasticorum Latinorum (CSEL), particularly CSEL 39, Itinerarium Hierosolymitana. Much of this information is from the seminal work of 19th century scholars including Edward Robinson, Titus Tobler and Reinhold Röhricht.The Pilgrims of Christ before the Crusades.Eusebius. Eusebius of Caesarea was a historian of Christianity who wrote Historia Ecclesiastica where he identifies a Cappadocian bishop Alexander who visited the Holy Land in the 3rd century. His Life of Constantine includes a description of Saint Helen's pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 326–327 and are excerpted in The Churches of Constantine at Jerusalem. An earlier Christian scholar Origen wrote In Joannem about the desire of Christians to search after the footprints of Christ. Itinerary of the Bordeaux Pilgrim. Itinerary from Bordeaux to Jerusalem is an anonymous account of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 333–334, with travels beginning shortly after that of Saint Helen. This is the oldest known Christian itinerarium. Egeria. Egeria, also known as Etheria or Aetheria, was a Spanish woman who in the early 380s wrote a work entitled Itinerarium Egeriae, detailing her pilgrimage to the Holy Land, once attributed to Saint Silvia of Aquitaine. Saint Jerome. Saint Jerome was a Latin historian wrote of the early pilgrims to Jerusalem in his Epistotlae, ''De Viris Illustribus and Liber Paralipumenon. These began in the early 3rd century with a bishop of Caesarea named Fermilian. Jerome also wrote Pilgrimage of Holy Paula about his travels with Saint Paula of Rome and her daughter Eustochium to the Holy Land, settling in Bethlehem. Their correspondence with Saint Marcella has been published as Letter of Paula and Eustochium to Marcella. Many of the biographies of the early popes in Liber Pontificalis were authored by Jerome. Socrates of Constantinople. Socrates of Constantinople, also known as Socrates Scholasticus, was a historian whose Historia Ecclesiastica covers the church from 305-439, including the pilgrimage of Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, and her finding relics of the True Cross, including nails and the Titulus Crucis. Saint Eudocia. Saint Eudocia was Byzantine empress married to Theodosius II who went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 438–439, returning with numerous holy relics. Her activities on her pilgrimage are recorded in Nicephoros Callistus' 14th century work Historia Ecclesiastica. Descriptions of the Holy Land in the 5th and 6th Centuries. Numerous works dating from 440–570 describe the geography, topography and buildings in the Holy Land. These include The Epitome of S. Eucherius ; The Breviary of Jerusalem ; Theodosius' De situ terrae sanctae, or Topography of the Holy Land ; The Buildings of Justinian, by Procopius ; and The Holy Places Visited by Antoninus Martyr, the so-called anonymous pilgrim of Piacenza. Both the Breviary and Antoninus Martyr describe the crown of thorns present in a "Basilica of Mount Zion." Symeon Stylites. The anonymous Vita Genovefae Virginis Parisiensis was a life of Saint Geneviève of Paris written c. 520. The work relates an incident where Saint Symeon Stylites on his pillar in Aleppo, asked for news of Geneviève and sent her a letter. Arculf and Adomnán. Arculf was a Frankish bishop who toured the Holy Land c. 680. whose travels are documented in Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land was a Scottish abbot who wrote his De locis sanctis based on the work of Arculf. The accounts contain the second oldest known map of Jerusalem. Saint Wlphlagio. De Sancto Wlphlagio, a priest in the Holy Land, wrote Commentatious historicus discussing 7th century pilgrims including Vulphy of Rue, also noted by Arculf, and Saint Bercaire. Bercaire, the founder of the abbey of Montier-en-Der, was accompanied by a Waimer, one of the murderers of Saint Leodegar, and he returned with valuable relics that he donated to Montier-en-Der and Châlons-sur-Marne. Three centuries later, abbot Adso of Montier-en-Der, hagiographer of Bercaire, embarked on a similar pilgrimage to Jerusalem accompanying a pentinent Hilduin II, Count of Arcis-sur-Aube, but died en route. Saint Willibald. Saint Willibald was an English bishop whose travels to Holy Land sometime between 720–740 are documented in the Hodoeporicon of Saint Willibald, dictated to an Anglo-Saxon nun named Huneberc. Willibald was the first known Englishman to travel to the Holy Land. His father Richard the Pilgrim attempted the trip but died en route. Commemoratorium de Casis Dei vel Monasteriis. Commemoratorium de Casis Dei vel Monasteriis is a report from 808 sent to Charlemagne tabulating all churches, monasteries and hospices in the Holy Land. Its purpose was to allow the emperor to expeditiously distribute alms. Peregrinatio Frotmundi. Peregrinatio Frotmundi is the account of a Frankish nobleman named Fromond who traveled with his brothers to Jerusalem in the mid-9th century in order to expiate a crime. Fromond is the first known penitent to travel to the Holy Land for salvation. Bernard the Pilgrim. Bernard the Pilgrim was a Frankish monk whose travels to the Holy Land are documented in the Itinerarium of Bernard the Wise. Ahmad ibn Rustah. Ahmad ibn Rustah was a Persian explorer and geographer who wrote a geographical compendium known as Kitāb al-A'lāq al-Nafīsa, describing his travels to Europe, Russia and Arabia.Al-Maqdisi. Al-Maqdisi was an Arab geographer, also known as Mukaddasi, whose travels were documented in his Description of Syria and Aḥsan al-taqāsīm fī maʿrifat al-aqālīm Fulk III of Anjou. Fulk III, Count of Anjou undertook four penitential pilgrimages to the Holy Land between 1003 and 1038, as documented in Gesta Consulum Andegavorum. This is described in Volume 1, Appendix 3 of Histoire des Croisades of Joseph Fr. Michaud.Lietbertus. Lietbertus was a bishop of Cambrai who attempted a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1054, only reaching as far as Cyprus. This is described in Raoul of Saint-Sépulcre's Vita Lietberti. According to Miracula Sancti Wolframni Senonensis, Lietbertus met pilgrims who had been turned away from Jerusalem. It is reported that the Muslims also ejected some 300 pilgrims from the city in 1056. Nasir Khusraw. Nasir Khusraw, also known as Nasir-i-Khusrau, was a Persian writer whose travels throughout the Islamic world are described in his Safarnāma. Miscellaneous Pilgrimage Accounts. A number of modestly obscure accounts of travel to the Holy Land covering the 11th through 15th centuries have also been published. These include: Anonymous pilgrims, I-VIII ; La Citez de Jherusalem used as a source for the Rothelin Continuation; and Ernoul's account of Palestine ; The Guide Book to Palestine by Philipus Brusserius Savonenis ; and Description of the Holy Land by John Poloner, which includes a discussion on Egypt.
During the Crusader era.Sæwulf. Sæwulf was an English pilgrim who travelled to the Holy Land from 1102–1103. His experiences were documented in the work Pilgrimage of Sæwulf to Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Daniel the Pilgrim. Daniel the Pilgrim, also known as Daniel the Higumenos, was an eastern Christian who travelled from Kievan Rus' to the Holy Land. He documented his travels in his Puteshestive igumena Daniil. Peter Chrysolan. Peter Chrysolan, also known as Grosolanus, was archbishop of Milan from 1102-1112. Peter went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1111, and his arguments with Eustratius of Nicaea while in Constantinople are recorded in his De Sancto Spiritu. Fretellus. Rorgo Fretellus was a Frankish priest in the Kingdom of Jerusalem whose Descriptio de locis sanctis was a widely distributed account the city and its environs. The work, begun as early as 1128, was likely derivative of other works in the library of the cathedral of Nazareth. John of Würzburg. John of Würzburg was a German priest who traveled to the Holy Land in the 1160s. His work Descriptio terrae sanctae may have been written as late as 1200. His objective was to update the 7th-century De locis sanctis. John Phocas. John Phocas was a Byzantine traveler to the Holy Land who wrote of his exploits in Ekphrasis ''of the Holy Places. Libellus de Locis Sanctis. Libellus de Locis Sanctis is a 12th century travelogue for use by pilgrims on their travels to the Holy Land written by an unknown monk named Theoderich who travelled to Palestine around 1172. Benjamin of Tudela. Benjamin of Tudela was a Jewish Spaniard whose travels in 1166–1172 through Europe, Asia and Africa were documented in work The Travels of Benjamin. His account included descriptions of Jewish colonies in Syria of the time. Euphrosyne of Polotsk. Euphrosyne of Polotsk was a Belarus princess, the granddaughter of Vseslav the Sorcerer, whose pilgrimage to Jerusalem c. 1173 is described in Pèlerinage en Palestine de l'Abbesse Euphrosyne, Princesse de Polotsk. She was received by Amalric I of Jerusalem and died in Jerusalem in 1173. Her body was placed in the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev after the conquest of Jerusalem in 1187. Later Jewish Travelers. Numerous Jewish travelers went from Europe to the Holy Land in the 12th century and later. These include Samuel ben Sampson and Petachiah of Regensburg. Their accounts have been documented by the 19th century French scholar Eliakim Carmoly in his Itinéraires de la Terre Sainte and translation of Sibbub Rab Petachyah Ibn Jubayr. Ibn Jubayr was an Arab geographer and traveler who documented his experiences in al-Rihlah which includes his trip to Mecca from 1183–1185 and included travel to Egypt and Sicily. Hakon Paulsson. Haakon Paulsson was a Norwegian Jarl who traveled to Jerusalem in 1120 and whose account is presented in the Orkneyinga saga written by an unknown Icelandic author.Peter Diaconus. Peter Diaconus, also known as Peter the Deacon, was librarian at the monastery of Monte Cassino and, while having never traveled to the Holy Land, wrote the travelogue Liber de Locis sancti based on the accounts of pilgrims to Jerusalem. Nikulas of Munkethverâ. Nikulas of Munkethverâ, an Icelandic abbot, visited Jerusalem from 1149–1153 and documented his travels in Leiðarvisir og borgarskipan. The account is essentially a travel guide to Europe and the Holy Land for pilgrims.Henry the Lion. Henry the Lion was Duke of Saxony who went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1172 where he met Kilij Arslan II, the Seljuk sultan of Rûm. His journey was chronicled in Arnold of Lübeck's Chronica Slavorum. Al-Harawi. Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Harawi was a Persian Sufi ascetic traveler who wrote al-Tadhkira al-Harawiya fi al-hiyal al-harabiya for al-Zahir Ghazi, sultan of Aleppo, and Kitab al-ishara ila ma`rifat al-ziyara, a guide to pilgrimage sites.Anthony of Novgorod. Anthony of Novgorod, archbishop of Novgorod, documented his travels to Constantinople in his Description des Lieux-Saints de Constantinople. Part of Itinéraires Russes en Orient, Société de l'Orient Latin, Série géographique.Wilbrand of Oldenburg. Wilbrand of Oldenburg was a German bishop who served as ambassador to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1212. The account of his travel is presented in Itinerarium terrae sanctae. His description of the Palace of the Ibelins in Beirut is renown. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, also known as John Pianô del Carpine, was a Franciscan missionary who was one of the first explorers to reach the Mongol empire. His travels from 1245–1247 were documented in his Ystoria Mongalorum, also referred to as Historia Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appelamus .'' Pian del Carpine was accompanied on his journey by Stephen of Bohemia and Benedict of Poland who wrote the short chronicle De itinere Fratrum Minorum ad Tartaros and the longer Hystoria Tartarorum. Some of the material in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville is believed to have derived from del Carpine's work. William of Rubruck. William of Rubruck was a Flemish Franciscan missionary who accompanied Louis IX of France on the Seventh Crusade and, in 1253, set out on a journey to Mongol territory. His report of his travels called Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratiae 1253 ad partes Orientales was presented to Louis IX in 1255. Marco Polo. Marco Polo was an Italian explorer who traveled in Asia from Persia to China in 1271–1295. He documented his exploits in The Travels of Marco Polo. In particular, he wrote of the Assassins at Alamut Castle.Rabban Bar Sauma. Rabban Bar Sauma was a Turkic monk who travelled from Mongol-controlled China to Jerusalem from 1287–1288 and recorded his activities in The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China, translated by E. A. W. Budge. He also wrote a biography of his traveling companion Nestorian Yahballaha III. Burchard of Mount Sion. Burchard of Mount Sion was a German friar who took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land from 1274-1284 and documented his travels in Descriptio Terrae Sanctae, one of the last detailed accounts prior to 1291. Burchard traveled to Cyprus and was received by Henry II of Jerusalem and later prepared a plan for an eventual crusade to retake Jerusalem. Kirakos Gandzaketsi. Kirakos Gandzaketsi, was an Armenian historian who wrote The Journey of Haithon, King of Little Armenia, To Mongolia and Back, an account of the travels of Hethum I of Armenia to the East.
After the Fall of Acre.Riccoldo da Monte di Croce. Riccoldo da Monte di Croce was an Italian Dominican friar, travel writer, missionary, and Christian apologist. He is most famous for his polemical works on Medieval Islam and the account of his missionary travels to Baghdad. His Book of Travels written 1288–1291 was a guidebook for missionaries, and is a description of the Oriental countries he visited. His Letters on the Fall of Acre are five letters in the form of lamentations over the fall of Acre, written about 1292.Ibn Battūta. Ibn Battūta was a Moroccan scholar who wrote of his adventures in his Voyages, visiting the Holy Land and Persia. His trip to Antioch verified that the city's fortifications had been destroyed in the siege of Antioch in 1268, but the city still had considerable population. Later, Burgundian pilgrim Bertrandon de la Broquière described in his Voyage d'Outremer a visit to Antioch where the population ad been reduced to about 300. Ludolf von Sudheim. Ludolf von Sudheim, also known as Ludolf of Suchem, travelled to the Holy Land from 1336–1341, writing De Terra sancta et itinere Iherosolomitano et de statu eius et aliis mirabilibus, que in mari conspiciuntur, videlicet mediterraneo documenting the fall of the Crusader states. Later Franciscan Pilgrims. Noted Franciscan pilgrims to the Holy Land in the 14th century include: Niccolò da Poggibonsi, who documented his travels in Libro d'oltramare ; Francesco Suriano, who wrote Tratatello delle indulgentie de Terra Sancta; and Florentine goldsmith Marco di Bartolomeo Rustici whose travels are documented as Dimostrazione dell'andata o viaggio al Santo Sepolcro e al Monte Sinai.Felix Fabri. Felix Fabri was a Swiss Dominican theologian who travelled to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences in Evagatorium in Terrae Sanctae, Arabiae et Egypti peregrinationem.
Related works include the Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad's biography of Saladin, Historia Orientalis of Jacques de Vitry, De Calamitatibus Cypri of Neophytos, Annales Altahenses, covering the German pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and Chronica Slavorum by Arnold of Lübeck. The sources of Historical Geography below are also relevant, as are the following. Early Christian writers. A number of pre-Christian Greek and early Christian writers are noted in the historical study of the Holy Land. These authors/writings include: "Aristeas", Hecataeus of Abdera,, Origen of Alexander's Contra Celsum, Life of St. Saba by Cyril of Scythopolis, Cyril of Jerusalem, Lucius Cassius Dio, Sophronius of Jerusalem, Chronicon Paschale, Theophanes the Confessor, and Eutychii annales. Saint Augustine of Hippo. The views of Saint Augustine of Hippo on the irrelevance of pilgrimages expressed in his Epistolae and Contra Faustum were not shared by St. Jerome, whose views prevailed. Augustine's De civitate Dei allowed for the possibility of God's war. Early Eastern Bishops. Saint Gregory of Nyssa, bishop of Nyssa, wrote disapprovingly of pilgrimages in his Epistolae, as did John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, in his Opera Omnia. John later expressed regrets about pilgrimage in Homilies on Ephesians.
Historical geography
Historical cartography, geography and topography are important sources in the study of the history of the Crusades. Some of the more important contemporaneous works are presented below. In addition, many of the accounts above, in particular those of Ahmad ibn Rustah, al-Balādhuri, ibn Jubayr, William of Rubrick, Abu'l-Fida and Rashid-al-Din Hamadani also provide geographical and architectural information.Tractatus de locis et statu sancte terre ierosolimitane. Tractatus de locis et statu sancte terre ierosolimitane is an anonymous work concerning the geography of the Kingdom of Jerusalem prior to the fall of the city in 1187. It also discusses the ethnography of the Christian groups living there as well as the feudal structure of the kingdom. The non-Christian groups such as Jews, Bedouins and Assassins are also discussed.Muhammad al-Idrisi. Muhammad al-Idrisi was an Arab geographer who spent time at the court of Roger II of Sicily who commissioned the Tabula Rogeriana. The Tabula Rogeriana was the most advanced map of the world at the time it was published in 1158 and was still in use at the time of Christopher Columbus. He also wrote a universal geography Nuzhat al-Mushtaq, translated by Lebanese Maronite Gabriel Sionita. Yaqut al-Hamawi. Yaqut al-Hamawi was an Arab scholar whose work Kitāb Mu'jam al-Buldān is simultaneously a book of geography, history, biography and Islam. Much of his work was derived from travel through Egypt, Syria and Persia. Ibn Shaddad. Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad was an Aleppan geographer employed by the Ayyubids who wrote Al-a'laq al-khatira fi dhikr umara' al-Sham wa'l-Jazira, a historical geography of Syria and al-Jazira. He also wrote a biography of the Mamluk sultan Baibars. Ibn Abd al-Zahir. Ibn Abd al-Zahir, also known as Muhi ad-Din ibn Abdazzahir, was an Egyptian historian who wrote extensively of the Mamluk sultans as well as a geographical study Kitāb al-Rawḍah al-Bahīyah used extensively by al-Makrizi. His work Lives of Baibars and Qalawun is a biography of sultans Baibars and al-Mansur Qalawun. Taqwim al-Buldan. Taqwim al-Buldan is a text on geography by Abu'l-Fida. It includes descriptions of the major cities of the world and contains the first known reference to the circumnavigator's paradox, in which travelers gain or lose a day circling the globe.Al-Dimashqi. Al-Dimashqi, the Damascene, was an Arab geographer whose work K. Nuk̲h̲bat al-Dahr fi ʿAd̲j̲āʾib al-Barr wal-Baḥr covered Greater Syria as well as Southeast Asia. Hamdallah Mustawfi. Hamdallah Mustawfi was a Persian historian and geographer whose work on geography Nozhat al-qolub may be derived from a lost work of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, the third part of his Jami' al-tawarikh.Marino Sanudo. Marino Sanudo (Sanuto) the Elder was a Venetian statesman and geographer who wrote Chronique de Romanie, and Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis, a work written in 1321 on geography which was offered to the pope as a manual for the reconquest of the Holy Land. The earliest surviving edition of Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis is from Volume II of Gesta Dei per Francos. Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae. Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae provides the summaries of over 3500 books on the geography of the Holy Land issued between 355 and 1878, as compiled and edited by German historian of the Crusades Reinhold Röhricht in 1890. His Karten und Pläne zur Palästinakunde aus dem 7 bis 16 Jahrhundert is a catalog of the eight known Crusader maps of Jerusalem.Related disciplines and documents
Crusader historians have made use of numerous religious, legal and personnel documents as well as scientific disciples such as archaeology in their attempt to accurately depict their chronicles. These include legal treatises of the Crusader States, Papal documents, and auxiliary sciences of history including genealogy, archaeological studies, numismatics and archeoseismology.Organization and administration of the Kingdom
The organization and administration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem provides much information to the histories of the Crusades. In particular, the legal documents concerning the Crusades and later governing of the Kingdom of Jerusalem are of significance to the study of the Crusades and form the first series of the RHC, entitled Assises de Jérusalem ou Recueil des ouvrages de jurisprudence composés pendant le XIIIe siècle dans les royaumes de Jérusalem et de Chypre, edited by Auguste-Arthur, Count of Beugnot. Relevant texts are listed below.The Assizes of Jerusalem are a set of six legal texts from the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus dating from the late 12th and early 13th centuries. According to legend, the court system was established by Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099, with the king serving as judge of the high court. The laws were lost when Jerusalem was taken in 1187, and were kept at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Known as Letres dou Sepulcre, Philip of Novara allegedly received the original laws from a jurist named Raoul of Saint Omer. Regardless, the legend allowed the envisioning of a legal structure existing since the founding of the kingdom. I. Livre de Jean d'Ibelin. was written by jurist John of Ibelin, count of Jaffa and Ascalon. Ibelin wrote his lengthy legal work from 1264–1266. The treatise enumerates the laws of the kingdom and procedures of the feudal council, the Haute Cour. It also included details about the kingdom's ecclesiastical and baronial structures. '' II. Livre de Geoffroy le Tort. is a short legal treatise written by a minor noble named Geoffroy le Tort after 1265. The work addresses feudal customs such as homage, and is partially derived from that of Philip of Novara. III. Livre de Jacques d'Ibelin written by James of Ibelin, count of Jaffa from 1266–1268, the son of John of Ibelin. His short treatise describes the practices, customs and ordinances of the kingdom and is often published in conjunction with that of Geoffrey le Tort. IV. Livre de Philippe de Navarre. This legal treatise, also known as Le Livre de forme de plait, was written by Philip of Novara in the 1250s. The work is from an aristocratic viewpoint, written in the literary language of knights, and is a handbook on feudal law. V. La Clef des Assises de la Haute Cour du royaume de Jérusalem et de Chypre. The work La Clef des Assises de la Haute Cour was written in the mid-13th century by an anonymous author and details the laws of the Haute Cour of the kingdom. VI. Livre au Roi. Livre au Roi is the earliest of the assizes, written c.1200 for Amalric II of Jerusalem. It is the only text preserving the établissement of King Baldwin II, which allowed the king to disinherit his vassals, bypassing the normal judgement of the Haute Cour. The work also includes the Assise sur la ligece, a law promulgated by Amalric I of Jerusalem which made each lord a direct vassal of the king with equal voting rights granted to vavasours as those of barons. Livre des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois. Livre des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois discusses formation and procedures of the Burgess court of the kingdom, Cour des Bourgeois, including the legal matters of resident Franks below the noble class. The work was written from 1229–1244 and was compiled in stages by multiple authors. It also served as a handbook for members of the court, providing descriptions of the responsibilities of officers of the court, the rights of burgesses, and when they could utilize the court. Legal matters in the work include misdemeanors, the sale of property, the legal rights of landowners and renters, and rules on lending, marriage, inheritance, dowry, illegitimacy and wills and testaments. Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani. published 1893–1904, is a collection of over nine hundred charters and other documents issued by the royal chancery of the Kingdom of Jerusalem compiled by German historian Reinhold Röhricht. Assizes of Antioch provided the legal code for the Principality of Antioch similar to those of the kingdom. Each of the Crusader states had assizes, but that of Antioch is the only one to survive, through a translation by Sempad the Constable. Assizes of Romania. The Assizes of Romania were the collection of legal codes compiled in Principality of Achaea that became the foundation of the laws of the states of Frankokratia following the Partitio terrarium imperil Romania'' in 1204.
Papal and other religious documents
Major papal and other religious documents relevant to Crusader history, some of which have been published in Patrologia Latina (MPL), include the following.Papal letters are generally referred to in medieval times as Litterae apostolicae and include the Papal bulls typically used to call for the early Crusades. Some of the more relevant ones are presented below.
Registres des Popes. Papal regesta of 13th century popes from Innocent III forward are included in Registres des Popes, Series 2 of Bibliothèque des Ecoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome.
Liber Pontificalis is a collection of biographies of the popes from Saint Peter through Pius II. The work includes Vita Urbani II, the life of Urban II, and Annales Romani.
Annales Romani. Annales Romani is a history of the city of Rome from 1044 to 1187, reprinted in Liber Pontificalis. The Annales include an account of the death of Urban III and the letters of Clement III.
Acta Sanctorum. Acta Sanctorum (Aa. Ss.) is an encyclopedic work in 68 volumes providing hagiographic accounts of the lives of Christian saints. The designator Bollandiana is often used to distinguish it from the Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae. The Bollandists also publish the quarterly Analecta Bollandiana.
Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedict. Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedict is a history in nine volumes of the Benedictine saints published between 1668 and 1701 by Jean Mabillon and Luc d'Achery.
Sacrorum Conciliorum. Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio ,'' written by the Italian historian Giovanni Domenico Mansi, is a vast edition of Church councils from the First Council of Nicaea in 325 through the Council of Florence in 1438.
The Papacy during the Crusades.Urban II. In 1095, pope Urban II addressed the Council of Clermont of 1095, issuing a call-to-arms for Christians to go to the Holy Land to aid emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in what was to become the First Crusade. Gesta Francorum and the works of Fulcher of Chartres, Robert the Monk, Baldric of Dol and Guibert of Nogent include accounts of that address. Later, the pope issued a Letter of Instruction to the Crusaders. Accounts of the address of Urban II at Clermont are found in Volume I.2 of Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History, edited by Dana Carleton Munro. Canons of the Council of Clermont. Lambert of Arras, bishop of Arras, serving from 1095-1115, prepared the Canons of the Council of Clermont, of which only the 33rd is pertinent to the First Crusade. During the council, Lambert was kidnapped by a robber-baron who released his captive upon the threat of excommunication. The canons are found in Volume XX of Sacrorum Conciliorum. See also Trans/Rep, Volume 1.2.II. Paschal II. Pope Paschal II issued the papal bull Pie postulatio volunatis in 1113 recognizing the establishment of the Knights Hospitaller. Celestine II. Pope Celestine II issued papal bull Milites Templi in 1144 to relating to the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller.Eugene III. In response to the fall of Edessa in 1144, pope Eugene III
The Military Orders and the Holy Land after 1291
The military/hospitaller religious orders of the Holy Land include the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights. Other works relating to the orders and activities in the Holy land after the fall of Acre include Gestes des Chiprois and Thaddeus of Naples' Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis. Bibliographies of the Hospitallers and their founder Blessed Gerard have been published by Jonathan Riley-Smith and Giuseppe Perta.Cartulaire général de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers. The Cartulaire général de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers (Cart.) (1100–1310), edited by Joseph Delaville Le Roulx, is a collection of original documents on the history of the Knights Hospitaller published in 1894 and 1906. The statutes are identified as Rule, esgarts and usances, and general decrees, issued from 1176-1306. Miracula. Miracula et regula hospitalis sancti Johannis Jerosolimitani is an account of the founding of the Knights Hospitaller written in 1181/1185, tracing the beginnings to the days of the Maccabees, with Antiochus as the founder and Zacharias, father of John the Baptist, as the first master. In this account, the order was destroyed by Titus when the Romans sacked Jerusalem in 70 AD. The Miracula's theory has been supplanted by that of William of Tyre. Vetus Chronicon Amalphitanum. Vetus Chronicon Amalphitanum is an anonymous work that describes the Amalfians who founded two hospitals in Jerusalem, one for men, one for women. The works of Amatus of Montecassino, Sicard of Cremona and William of Tyre support this narrative.Exordium Hospitalariorum. Exordium Hospitalariorum is collection of accounts of the Knights Hospitaller in six parts, including: De prima institutione Hospitalariorum; ''Tractus de exordio sacrae domus Hospitalis Jerosolimitani; Comment le sainte maison de l'Hospital de S. Johan de Jerusalem commença by William of Santo Stefano; De Primordiis et Inventione Sacræ Religionis Jerosolymorum; and two works by William Caoursin Primordium et origo sacri Xenodochii atque Ordinis militiae Sancti Joannis Baptistae Hospitalariorum Hierosolimitani, and Le fondement du S. Hospital de l'ordre de la chevalerie de S. Jehan Baptiste de Jerusalem. De prima institutione Hospitalariorum. De prima institutione Hospitalariorum is a short, anonymous account of the Knights Hospitaller. The work is derivative of William of Tyre's account, and discusses the conflicts between the order and the religious authorities. Tractus de exordio sacrae domus Hospitalis Jerosolimitani. Tractus de exordio sacrae domus Hospitalis Jerosolimitani is a history of the Knights Hospitaller written by an unknown author known only as Joseph the "Historiographer." The work is the second part of Exordium Hospitalariorum. William of Santo Stafano. William of Santo Stefano was a scholar and a Knight Hospitaller who wrote Comment le sainte maison de l'Hospital de S. Johan de Jerusalem commença on the founding of the order. The work disputed the account presented in the Miracula, legends which take the order's history back to before New Testament times and identity John the Baptist's parents as early custodians of the Hospital. In the 1260s, the grand master believed he was descended from Saint Stephen protomartyr, and William's work proposed that the Order was founded by Blessed Gerard reflecting the view of William of Tyre. De Primordiis et Inventione Sacræ Religionis Jerosolymorum. The anonymous De Primordiis et Inventione Sacræ Religionis Jerosolymorum is a history of the Hospitallers from the time of Raymond du Puy until their establishment at Rhodes in 1310. It continues the repudiation of the Miracula and appears to be closely related to the works of Caoursin. Peter of Dusburg. Peter of Dusburg was a German historian and chronicler of the Teutonic Knights through his work Chronicon terrae Prussiae.William Caoursin. William Caoursin was the historian of the Knights Hospitaller after 1460 and wrote a number of works on the order, including Rhodiorum historia, Primordium et origo sacri Xenodochii atque Ordinis militiae Sancti Joannis Baptistae Hospitalariorum Hierosolimitani, and Le fondement du S. Hospital de l'ordre de la chevalerie de S. Jehan Baptiste de Jerusalem. Primordium et origo sacri Xenodochii. Primordium et origo sacri Xenodochii atque Ordinis militiae Sancti Joannis Baptistae Hospitalariorum Hierosolimitani is a rewriting of the statutes of the order, written by William Caoursin in 1489. Directed by grand master Pierre d'Aubusson, the work converted the statutes from a chronology to one organized by subject matter. Caoursin revived the legend of the Miracula that the order was founded by Judas Maccabeus and destroyed by the Romans during their sack of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Le fondement du S. Hospital de l'ordre. Le fondement du S. Hospital de l'ordre de la chevalerie de S. Jehan Baptiste de Jerusalem is an old French version of Primordium et origo sacri Xenodochii, originally written in Latin. In 1493, it was translated into the various vulgar languages in use among the Christian peoples. Rhodiorum historia. Rhodiorum historia is a collection of histories of the Knights Hospitaller written by William Caoursin. He also wrote Stabilimenta Rhodiorum militum , a compilation of the order's rules, Obsidionis Rhodiae urbis descripto, an account of the siege of Rhodes in 1480. The works are part of the collection at the National Library of Malta.Cartulaire de l'église du Saint Sépulcre de Jérusalem. Cartulaire de l'église Du Saint Sépulcre de Jérusalem, Manuscrits du Vatican, edited by French historian M. Eugène de Rozière, provide the cartularies for the Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre. The Canons Regular were formally recognized by Paschal II in 1113, but may date to the capture of Jerusalem in 1099. Regum Jerusalem, Principum Prælatorum. Regum Jerusalem, Principum Prælatorum, Epistolæ Viginti Sex is a report provided to Louis VII of France in 1172 concerning the king, princes and prelates of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Included are Amalric of Jerusalem, Bohemond III of Antioch, Amalric of Nesle, Latin patriarch, Bertrand de Blanchefort, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, and Gilbert of Assailly, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. La Prise de Damiette en 1219. La Prise de Damiette en 1219 is an anonymous account of the Siege of Damietta of 1218–1219 and the roles of the military orders, John of Brienne and Sauvary of Mauléan in the battle and its aftermath. Iohannes de Tulbia. Iohannes de Tulbia, known as John of Tulbia, was a priest in Potenza who wrote Gesta obsidionis Damiatæ De Domino based on his own eyewitness account and Johanne Rege Jerusalem, a biography of John of Brienne. A related tale by an unknown author is Liber Duellii Christiani in Obsidione Domiate exacti has also been attributed to Tulbia. De constructione castri Saphet. De constructione castri Saphet is an anonymous account of the rebuilding of the fortress of Safed by the Knights Templar between 1241-1244. The Templar had controlled the castle beginning in 1168, and it was under the control of Saladin from 1188. Al-Mu'azzam Isa, emir of Damascus, had the fortress destroyed in 1219 and it was recovered by the Templar in 1240.Ricaut Bonome. Ricaut Bonomel was a Knight Templar and troubadour at the time of the Eighth Crusade whose work Poems is traced to between the capture of the Hospitaller castle at Arsuf in 1265 and the loss of the Templar fortress at Saphet in 1266 by Mamluk sultan Baibars. Pierre Dubois. Pierre Dubois was a French propagandist who wrote De recuperatione Terre Sancte about recovery of the Holy Land using the wealth of the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller. Bruno, Bishop of Olmütz. Bruno von Schauenburg, Bishop of Olmütz, was an advisor to Ottokar II of Bohemia and published his memoirs Bericht sometime after 1272. As described there, after the death of Richard of Cornwall in 1272, Bruno pressed pope Gregory X to appoint Ottokar II as king of Germany, citing the failure of the Teutonic Knights in their pursuing Lord Edward's Crusade. The position went instead to Rudolf I of Germany. Collectio de Scandalis Ecclesiae. Gilbert of Tournai was a Franciscan historian linked to Saint Bonaventure whom he accompanied to the Second Council of Lyon of 1272. Gilbert wrote a Collectio de Scandalis Ecclesiae , addressed to pope Gregory X, taking an adversarial position to the Knights Templars and Knights Hospitallers, suggesting that they be united into a single institution. He also castigated the negligence of Christians towards the Holy Land, and called for a new Crusade. Via ad Terram Sanctam. Via ad Terram Sanctam was an anonymous document on suggestions and plans for the retaking of the Holy Land written around 1289. It is also known as Memoria Terre Sancte. De Excidio Urbis Acconis. De Excidio Urbis Acconis is an anonymous account of the siege of Acre of 1291, with earlier material based on William of Tyre's Historia. ''De Excidio presents a more popular view of the history and of the Knights Hospitaller's last stand. The work takes a dim view of the Knights Templar and, in particular, Otto de Grandson, master of the English knights at Acre. For other works on the siege, see Gestes des Chiprois and Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis. Galvano da Levanto. Galvano da Levanto, a physician in the papal court of Boniface VIII, was a propagandist who wrote Liber Sancti Passagii Christocolarum contra Saracenos pro recuperatione Terra Sanctae in 1295 dedicated to Philip IV of France called for a new Crusade. He was influenced by Thaddeus of Naples' account of the fall of Acre. Ramon Lull. Ramon Lull, also known as Raymond Lully or Llull, was a Spanish missionary to the Arab world who in 1295 presented pope Boniface VIII with the document Liber de Fine proposing a new crusade and the combining the military orders into a single organization. Lull was stoned to death in Tunisia in 1315. Peter of Dusburg. Peter of Dusburg was a German chronicler of the Teutonic Knights though his history Chronicon terrae Prussiae that includes a discussion of the origin of the order in 1192 at Acre and its history in Outremer.Tabulae Ordinis Teutonici. Tabulae Ordinis Teutonici is a collection of original documents related to the Teutonic Knights. Edited by German archivist Ernst Strehlke, completed posthumously by Philipp Jaffé. Jacques de Molay. In 1306, Jacques de Molay, last Grand Master of the Knights Templar, provided a report to pope Clement V recommending against the merging of the Templars and Hospitallers. Reprinted in Étienne Baluze's, Vitae Paparum Avenionensium. Foulques de Villaret. Foulques de Villaret was Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller when he wrote Mémoire de Foulques de Villaret sur la croisade. At the time of the Council of Vienne in 1311-1312, Foulques wrote to Philip IV of France of the Hospitaller's preparation for any future crusade. William Durand. William Durand was bishop of Mende who wrote in 1311 a three-volume work De modo celebrandi concilii et corruptelis for pope Clement V, who later issued papal bull Vox in excelso. His work Informatio brevis de Passagio futuro, in Historie littéraire de la France, XXXV, a treatise published in 1312 on a possible Crusade to the Holy Land. La Devise des Chemins de Babiloine. La Devise des Chemins de Babiloine is a document prepared for Foulques de Villaret, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller, providing an assessment of Mamluk forces, as research for a possible invasion. When the document was written in 1306–1307, al-Nasir Muhammad was sultan of Egypt and Syria.Jean de Langhe. Jean de Langhe, abbot of St. Bertin's from 1365–1383, was also known as John of Ypres or Johannes Iperius, and is believed by some to be the same person as John Mandeville. Langhe entered St. Bertins in 1340 and wrote his history of the abbey Chronicon Sythiense Sancti Bertini covering the years 590–1294. Thomas of Saint-Bertin sold the castle of La Fauconnerie south of Acre to the Knights Templar in 1276. Material before the 11th century is based on Folcuin's Gesta abbatum Lobiensium. Trials of the Knights Templar.' The trials of the Knights Templar in Cyprus in 1311 are discussed in Gestes des Chiprois, the Chroniques d'Amadi et de Stromboldi and Historia overo commentarii de Cipro.''Correspondence, charters and privileges
Crusaders and other travelers to the Holy Land have documented their experiences through personal correspondence, and many of these have been recognized by historians, for example the letters of Stephen, Count of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont. In addition, charters and privileges have been documented. Some of the more important documents are listed below. Correspondence from before 1100 can be found in Heinrich Hagenmeyer's Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahren, 1088-1100 and in Trans/Rep, Volume 1.2.IV.Letter of Alexios I to Robert I of Flanders. Imperatoris Constantinopolis Epistola ad Robert Flandrie Comitem et Omnes Christianos, the so-called Epistula spuria of 1093 from Alexios I to Robert I of Flanders regarding the situation in the Holy Land and a request for help, was later used by Bohemond of Taranto against the emperor. Letters of the First Crusade. Two of the oft-cited letters from Crusaders are those of Stephen, Count of Blois, to his wife Adela of Normandy in June 1097 from Nicaea, and March 1098 from Antioch, and that of Anselm of Ribemont to his superior Manasses II, archbishop of Reims, sent from Antioch in November 1097. Letters of Godfrey of Bouillon. Patrologia Latina provides the Epistolæ I-V, 1096-1100, Concio ad Milites Christianos and Diplomata of Godfrey of Bouillon issued during the First Crusade. Letters from Symeon II. Symeon II of Jerusalem sent a letter with Adhemar of Le Puy from Antioch to the Western church describing the progress of the Crusade. Correspondence of Bohemond. Bohemond of Taranto wrote a number of letters to fellow Crusader leaders including Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert Curthose, Robert II of Flanders and Eustace III of Boulogne. Charters. Noteworthy charters include that entered into by Bohemond with the Genoese at Antioch following the capture of the city in 1098, granting them certain properties and privileges. Clementia of Burgundy recorded a charter concerning the relics returned by her husband Robert II of Flanders. Privileges. Privileges were granted to Crusaders by Urban II, Eugene III, Philip II of France, the Fourth Lateran Council, emperor Frederick II and Louis IX of France, among others. Original documents for such privileges are found in Trans/Rep, Volume 1.2.III.Letter from the Clergy of Lucca. The clergy of Lucca wrote to their parishioners of the siege of Antioch of 1097-1098, describing the despair of the Crusaders and desertion of some of their members, in particular William de Grantmesnil, husband of Bohemond's half-sister Mabilla. Letter of Dagobert on Jerusalem. In 1100, Dagobert of Pisa, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote to Bohemond of Taranto offering him the lordship of Jerusalem in opposition to the knights of the city who supported Baldwin of Boulogne. The letter was intercepted and Bohemond captured shortly thereafter. Correspondence of Paschal II. Pope Paschal II sent and number of letters to clergy concerning the Holy Land prior to 1100. In 1116, Paschal sent a letter reinstating Arnulf of Chocques to the post of patriarch of Jerusalem. Letters from Conrad III of Germany. During the Second Crusade, Conrad III of Germany wrote of the crusade to Wibald, abbot of Corvey, about status of his contingent, especially after the devastating loss at the siege of Damascus in 1148.Letters on the Fall of Jerusalem. In 1187, after the siege of Jerusalem, a certain Ansbert wrote of Saladin's victory to the Master of the Hospitallers. A Templar known only as Terence provided a report to his brethren and Henry II of England. Aimery of Limoges, Latin Patriarch of Antioch, also sent a letter to Henry II about the travails in the East. Henry's response was unjustifiably optimistic. All are recounted in Roger of Howden's Gesta Regis Ricardi. Communications of Frederick I. In 1189, early in the Third Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I wrote to Leopold V of Austria and received from Sibylla of Jerusalem letters regarding the emperor Isaac II Angelos' dealings with Saladin. He also wrote to Saladin demanding return of Jerusalem, as recounted in Gesta Henrici Regis Secundi. Saladin's response offered Frankish prisoner release and restoration of Latin abbeys in the Holy Land. While crossing Bulgaria in the fall of 1189, Frederick I sent a letter to his son Henry VI of Germany concerning his problems with the emperor. The letter is included in Ansbert's Historia. Epistolae Cantuarenses. Epistolae Cantuarenses include letters of the archbishops of Canterbury Baldwin of Forde and Hubert Walter of the later 12th century discussing the relationship with the Canterbury Cathedral and Baldwin's travel to the Holy Land in 1190. It includes a letter concerning the deaths of Sibylla of Jerusalem and her daughters. Letters between Richard I and Saladin. In October 1191, Richard I of England and Saladin exchanged letters in an attempt to negotiate peace between the Crusaders and Ayyubids, as reported by Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad's biography of the sultan. Communications of Innocent III. After the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae in 1204, Innocent III exchanged letters with Baldwin I, Latin Emperor, on the status of Constantinople. The letter to him from the Greek clergy about the pillaging in the city is found in Cotelerius' Ecclesiæ Græcæ Monumenta. He also wrote to Aymar the Monk, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, on the marriage of Amalric I to Isabella of Jerusalem in 1198. Regestum Innocentii III Papae. Regestum Innocentii III Papae super Negotio Romani Imperii provides the regesta, including papal letters and other documents, of Innocent III from 1098–1216. The pope purposely left most of his correspondence with Philip of Swabia out of the official register, adding selected ones after Philip's assassination in 1208. Letters on the Sixth Crusade. After the retaking of Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade in 1229, the event was seen from different viewpoints in the letters of Frederick II to Henry III of England and that of Gerold of Lausanne, Patriarch of Jerusalem, to the faithful. Insights on the Seventh Crusade. After the siege of Damietta in 1249, a knight named Guy in service of Louis IX of France during the Seventh Crusade wrote of the siege to his half-brother, providing a unique insight into the conflict.Letters from Jean Pierre Sarrasin. Jean Pierre Sarrasin was chamberlain to Louis IX of France. He published his Lettres françaises du XIIIe siècle..Letter from Acre to Charles I of Anjou. In May 1260, the government of Acre sent the Lettre des Chrétiens de Terre Sainte à Charles d'Anjou to Charles I of Anjou warning of the Mongol invasion and requesting help. Letter from Joseph of Chauncy to Edward I. Following the Second Battle of Homs in 1281, Joseph of Chauncy, Prior of the English Hospitallers, wrote to Edward I of England concerning the activities of Hugh I of Jerusalem and Bohemond VII of Antioch. Letter from Jean de Villiers. Jean de Villiers, Grand Master of the Hospitallers, wrote a letter to Europe following the siege of Acre in 1291 trying to explain the loss of the city to the Mamluks. The letter recounts the story of Hospitaller Marshall Matthew of Clermont, who leapt into the midst of the Mamluks causing them to flee like "sheep from wolves." This story is also told in De Excidio Urbis Acconis, Thaddeus of Naples' Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis, and ''Gestes des Chiprois.''Genealogical studies
The genealogy of the ruling classes of Christians and Muslims in the Holy Land during the Crusades period is summarized below. Runciman's Volume II, Appendix III and Volume III, Appendix III provide the genealogical trees of the major families. Specific reference documents include the following.Lineages of Outremer. Lignages d'Outremer is a genealogical study laying out the pedigrees of prominent Crusader families written in 1270. The Lignages traces fifteen noble families of Outremer and Cyprus that descended from Guy and Stephanie of Milly, parents of Philip of Milly. Les familles d'outremer is an unpublished work by French philologist and historian Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange. A genealogy of the prominent families of the Kingdom of Jerusalem through 1244, including those of the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Order. The publication and completion of Du Cange's unfinished work was entrusted to N. R. Taranne. After the latter's death it was continued by E. G. Rey.Genealogy of Godfrey of Bouillon. The genealogy of Godfrey of Bouillon is provided by Genalogia Comitum Buloniensium and in three Beatæ Idæ Vita about Godfrey's mother Ida of Lorraine The Mohammedan Dynasties. The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions by British orientalist and archaeologist Stanley E. Lane-Poole. Includes the dynasties of Egypt, the Levant, Persia, Afghanistan and the Mongols.The New Islamic Dynasties. Clifford E. Bosworth's work The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook provides complete lists of original sources for the dynasties relevant to the Crusades, including the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Seljuk caliphates, sultanates and khanates.Additional genealogical sources. Additional sources for historical materials include Historiens orientaux from RHC whose Introduction provides detailed genealogies for the caliphates and sultanates active during the Crusades. Additional material on the Artuqids is found in the works of ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi and the Seljuks from 1070 to 1154 in Taef Kamal El-Azhari's work The Seljuks of Syria during the Crusades. The discussion in Documents arméniens of RHC also includes information on the genealogy of the Armenian leaders. Thiou of Morigny's Chronicon Mauriniacense includes the genealogy of the houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset, families with strong ties to the Crusader armies and the kingdom.
Archaeological studies
Archaeological exploration has contributed to the understanding of the history of the Crusades by verifying or refuting accounts presented in original sources. Particular emphasis has been on Crusader castles, history of the art of the period, and document analysis techniques such as palaeography, diplomatics and epigraphy. Some of the more important researchers and the work areEmmanuel Guillaume-Rey. Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey was a French archaeologist, topographer and orientalist who wrote seminal works on the archaeology of the Holy Land including Etudes sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des croisés, Étude historique et topographique de la tribu de Juda and Étude sur la topographie de la ville d'Acre au XIIIe siècle. Max van Berchem. Max van Berchem was a Swiss epigraphist and historian whose work includes Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum and Epigraphie des Assassins de Syrie.'' He was the pioneer in the use of Arabic inscriptions in historical analysis.Jean Mabillon. Jean Mabillon was a Benedictine monk who wrote De re diplomatica, an analysis of medieval documents and manuscripts back to the early 7th century that formed the foundational work for the fields of palaeography and diplomatics. He also wrote Acta Ordinis Sancti Benedicti, a collection of the lives of the Benedictine saints.'' Bernard de Montfaucon. Bernard de Montfaucon was a Benedictine monk and scholar who is considered one of the founders of archaeology and palaeography. He wrote L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures and Bibliotheca Coisliniana, an examination of ancient and medieval Greek writings. Al Baghdadi. Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi was an Arab physician, historian and traveler who wrote numerous works including Account of Egypt in two parts that is an early work on archaeology and Egyptology. His work was discovered by English orientalist Edward Pococke. Abd al-Latif's autobiography is found in Historiens orientaux. Kathleen M. Kenyon. Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon was a British archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent, one of the most influential archeologists of the 20th century. Among her dozens of published works is Archaeology in the Holy Land.Moshe Sharon. Moshe Sharon is an Israeli historian whose Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, published beginning in 1997, provides the epigraphy of the Holy Land relating to construction, dedication, religious endowments, epitaphs, Quranic texts, prayers and invocations. His work has been instrumental in the continued analysis of original texts of the Crusades.Sheila Blair. Sheila Blair is an American scholar of Islamic art who wrote the article Arab Inscriptions in Persia, in Epigraphy and Būyid Art and Architecture Hugh Kennedy. Hugh Kennedy is a British historian whose Crusader Castles is an account of the history and architecture of Crusader castles in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, County of Tripoli and Principality of Antioch between 1099 and 1291.David Nicolle. David Nicolle is a British historian specializing in the military history of the Middle East. His Crusader Castles in the Holy Land, 1192–1302 examines the early fortifications erected by the Crusaders in Israel, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.Denys Pringle. Denys Pringle is a British archaeologist and medievalist whose work Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: An Archaeological Gazeteer provides descriptive gazetteer of secular buildings known to have existed within the Kingdom of Jerusalem.Camile Enlart. Camille Enlart was a French archaeologist and art historian who wrote a seminal work L'art gothique et la Renaissance en Chypre on Crusader-era art.Archaeological studies of the Middle East during the Crusader period include: Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia by Dweezil Vandekerckhove, covering Armenian structures from 1198–1375; Unknown Crusader Castles by Kristian Molin provides a military history of the Holy Land, Armenia, Cyprus and Greece from the First Crusade until 1380.