Robert Curthose
Robert Curthose, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy as Robert II from 1087 to 1106.
Robert was twice an unsuccessful pretender to the throne of the Kingdom of England. The epithet "Curthose" originated in the Norman French word courtheuse. The chroniclers William of Malmesbury and Orderic Vitalis wrote that his father had derisively called him brevis-ocrea.
Robert's reign is noted for the discord with his brothers, the English kings William II and Henry I. He mortgaged his duchy to finance his participation in the First Crusade, where he was an important commander. In 1106, his disagreements with Henry led to defeat in the Battle of Tinchebray and lifelong captivity, with Normandy temporarily absorbed into England's possession.
Early life
Robert was the eldest son of William the Conqueror, the first Norman king of England, and Matilda of Flanders. Estimates of Robert's birth-date range between 1051 and 1053. As a child he was betrothed to Margaret, the heiress of Maine, but she died before they could wed, and Robert did not marry until his late forties. In his youth he was courageous and skilful in military exercises. He was also prone to laziness and weakness of character that discontented nobles and the King of France exploited to stir discord with his father. He was unsatisfied with the share of power allotted to him and quarrelled with his father and brothers fiercely. In 1063, his father made him the Count of Maine in view of his engagement to Margaret, and Robert may have ruled independently in Maine.The county remained under Norman control until 1069, when the county revolted and reverted to Hugh V, Count of Maine.
In 1077, Robert instigated his first insurrection against his father as the result of a prank played by his younger brothers William Rufus and Henry, who had dumped a full chamber pot over his head. Robert was enraged and, urged on by his companions, started a brawl with his brothers that was only interrupted by the intercession of their father. Feeling that his dignity was wounded, Robert was further angered when King William failed to punish his brothers. The next day Robert and his followers attempted to seize Rouen Castle. The siege failed, but, when King William ordered their arrest, Robert and his companions took refuge with Hugh of Chateauneuf-en-Thymerais. They were forced to flee again when King William attacked their base at Rémalard.
Exile
Robert fled to Flanders to the court of his uncle Robert I, Count of Flanders before plundering the county of the Vexin and causing such mayhem that his father, King William, allied himself with King Philip I of France to stop his rebellious son. Relations were not helped when King William discovered that his wife, Robert's mother Queen Matilda, was secretly sending him money. At a battle in January 1079, Robert is said to have unhorsed King William in combat and succeeded in wounding him, only stopping his attack when he recognised his father's voice. Humiliated, King William cursed his son. King William then raised the siege and returned to Rouen.At Easter 1080, father and son were reunited by the efforts of Queen Matilda, and a truce between the two lasted until she died in 1083. Robert seems to have left court soon after the death of his mother and spent several years travelling throughout France, Germany, and Flanders. He visited Italy seeking the hand of the great heiress Matilda of Tuscany but was unsuccessful. During this period as a wandering knight Robert sired several illegitimate children. His son Richard seems to have spent much of his life at the royal court of his uncle William Rufus. This Richard was killed in a hunting accident in the New Forest in 1100, as was his uncle, King William Rufus, the same year. An illegitimate daughter was later married to Helias of Saint-Saens.
First Reign (1087–1096)
Succession crisis
In 1087, the elder William died of wounds suffered from a riding accident during a siege of Mantes. At his death he reportedly wanted to disinherit his eldest son but was persuaded to instead divide the Norman dominions between his two eldest sons. To Robert he granted the Duchy of Normandy and to William Rufus he granted the Kingdom of England. The youngest son, Henry, was given money to buy land. Of the two elder sons Robert was considered to be much weaker and was generally preferred by the nobles who held lands on both sides of the English Channel since they could more easily circumvent his authority. When their father died, the two brothers agreed to be each other's heirs.This agreement lasted less than a year, when barons joined with Robert to displace Rufus in the Rebellion of 1088, beginning in the spring of that year. Although Robert initially accepted Rufus's claim in England, when given the opportunity by the leader of the conspiracy and his probable chief advisor, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, he began preparations. For this, Robert lacked sufficient funds, and approached his younger brother Henry for part of the money he had received in the inheritance. Henry refused, but Robert promptly offered the whole of the Cotentin, as well as Avranches and Mont-Saint-Michel, in exchange for 3000 livres. Henry agreed.
Meanwhile, William found out about his barons' plot to overthrow him, and went to besiege Odo at Rochester. Odo found out, and fled for Pevensey to join the defence. The king followed the bishop towards Pevensey Castle and promptly began a siege there instead, abandoning the proposed action against Rochester. Although Robert did not himself join his allies in England, he sent a contingent of soldiers towards England so as to support them as he continued preparations, probably delayed by the need to control the channel. William sent his own fleet to contest the Norman landing as he invested Pevensey, at which point the English navy won a decisive victory. Robert's fleet had cost 3000 livres; all of the money gained from selling the Cotentin was now gone. After six weeks, Pevensey fell and Odo was captured, with William then having to besiege Rochester defended by multiple great Norman magnates, such as Robert of Belleme amongst the leaders.
With still no aid from Robert, whose resources were now limited, the defenders were forced to surrender. Bishop Odo was exiled and lost all of his lands within England, alongside other conspirators, and Robert lost any opportunity he had to seize England for the next 12 years. Not all of the barons who participated in the revolt were punished so severely; many, such as Roger Bigod and the Grandmesnils, reconciled with Rufus and came to oppose Robert. The revolt failed in part because Robert never showed up to support the English rebels, leaving only the controversial Odo of Bayeux to lead the barons.
Rule in Normandy
The central authority of the Duke of Normandy weakened in the midst of William I's death, though not to a terminal extent. Local magnates including Ralph of Conches and Robert of Bellême expelled the garrisons of the late king and established areas of dominion. Robert was affable, mild, and generous to his barons and the clergy. In 1088 alone, Robert endowed the Abbey of Saint-Étienne and Fécamp Abbey. However, this, alongside the sudden weakness of ducal authority, and other expenditures, left Robert almost perpetually lacking in funds. Enemies of Henry at Robert's court had convinced the duke to arrest his younger brother and Robert of Bellême, on suspicion of reconciling with Rufus. Henry had, in fact, travelled across the channel to request the estates of the late Matilda of Flanders, which Rufus refused to surrender. Henry was released after six months.On the advice of Odo of Bayeux, Duke Robert quickly assembled an army in August of 1088 with which he marched to Le Mans and was welcomed by the citizens, with the purpose of securing his control over the southern frontier castles of the duchy. This army secured the castles of Saint-Céneri and Ballon, both formerly in revolt against Robert. The duke had Robert Quarrel, the lord of Ballon, blinded, and mutilated his enemies within Saint-Céneri. Robert of Bellême was imprisoned by the duke, and only freed due to the intervention of Roger of Montgomery, his father. Roger requested peace, and successfully petitioned for his son to be released. The duke may have been motivated by Robert's prior dogged support for the invasion of England.
Instability and defections
By 1089, Duke Robert faced another threat in the form of Rufus's wish to destabilize Normandy. In contrast to his elder brother, the English king possessed deep pockets and more expansive methods of raising wealth, with a large treasury available at Winchester. William bribed many of Robert's vassals away from him, starting with the garrison of Saint-Valery. Stephen of Aumale, Gerard of Gournay, Robert of Eu, Walter Giffard, and Ralph Mortemer were all coaxed towards William's side, leaving most of the Norman barons on the right bank of the Seine ready to break away from the duke.Lacking the same financial resources or ability to deliver reward, Robert was in a sense helpless against this change, but Helias of Saint-Saëns, the Lord of Saint-Saëns, stood firm in the duke's camp. Helias was, for his loyalty, given the hand of an illegitimate daughter of Robert's alongside the castles of Arques and Bures, making him one of the only counterbalances to William's intercessions in the region. The duke managed to form an alliance with Philip, King of France against the magnates East of the Seine, and they launched a siege of Gerard of Gournay's castle at La Ferté-Bernard. In exchange, Robert granted Philip the castle of Gisors, along the Epte, which marked the border of the Vexin. The castle had belonged to the Cathedral of Rouen and this grant angered Archbishop William. Robert besieged and captured the castle of Eu, and Aird considers him to have had a successful campaign against the rebels by September of 1089.
A revolt broke out in Maine when the Manceau heard of Robert's illness in late 1089. Preoccupied with the barons east of the Seine, Robert met with Fulk IV, Count of Anjou, and requested that he resolve the crisis. Fulk agreed if he was allowed to marry the daughter of Simon de Montfort, Bertrade, despite having been married thrice. Bertrade was in the care of her uncle, William of Évreux, and to secure the marriage, Robert had to grant William the lands of Ralph Asshead, and grant a series of castles to his nephew, William of Breteuil. Fulk successfully suppressed the revolt in Maine for a year.
In November 1090, a revolt broke out in Rouen led by the Pilatenses, a faction of the city opposed to Robert's rule and led by Conan, the son of Gilbert Pilatus. As supposedly the wealthiest citizen of Rouen, Conan was supported by William Rufus in his revolt, and Robert had to hastily summon his vassals to assist him in crushing the riot. Henry, Robert's brother, was convinced to forget the duke's prior wrongs against him and come to his aid. Though he led his men bravely, Duke Robert's vassals convinced him to flee the city for his own safety, while Henry and Gilbert of L'Aigle crushed the revolt and captured many of its leaders. Conan was personally executed by Henry.
But Robert's success here did not prevent failures elsewhere. In the same month, a private war broke out between Ralph of Conches and William of Évreux, and Ralph appealed to the duke for aid. Robert, under significant pressure, was not forthcoming, and Ralph then requested support from William of England. William quickly directed his satellites in Normandy to support Ralph, thus expanding the king's influence in the duchy. At the same time, in Maine, the Norman garrisons were expunged and Maine was claimed by Hugh of Este, a relative of Hugh IV. Only Hoël, Bishop of Le Mans stayed loyal to Robert and his resistance saw support for Hugh ultimately deteriorate. Hugh would ultimately sell the comital title to Helias of La Flèche.