Linguistic areas of the Americas


The indigenous languages of the Americas form various linguistic areas or Sprachbunds that share various common traits. The following list of linguistic areas is primarily based on Campbell.

Overview

The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds. The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds helps historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer, which was published as Sherzer.
Lyle Campbell lists over 20 linguistic areas, many of which are still hypothetical.
Note: Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.
Linguistic Area Included families, branches, and languages
Northern Northwest CoastEskimo-Aleut, Haida, Eyak, Tlingit
Northwest CoastEyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan,
Takelma, Lower Chinook
PlateauSahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala language, Klamath, Kutenai, Interior Salishan
Northern CaliforniaAlgic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Maiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi,
Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana,
Clear LakeLake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, Wappo
South Coast RangeChumash, Esselen, Salinan
Southern California–Western ArizonaYuman, Cupan, less extensively Takic
Great BasinNumic, Washo
PuebloKeresan, Tanoan, Zuni, Hopi, some Apachean branches
PlainsAthabaskan, Algonquian, Siouan, Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, Tonkawa
NortheastWinnebago, Northern Iroquoian, [Eastern Algonquian languages|Algonquian languages|Eastern Algonquian]
Southeast Muskogean, Chitimacha, Atakapa, Tunica language, Natchez, Yuchi, Ofo, Biloxi –
sometimes also Tutelo, Catawban, Quapaw, Dhegiha ; Tuscarora, Cherokee, Shawnee
MesoamericanAztecan, Mixe–Zoquean, Mayan, Xincan, Otomanguean
, Purépecha, Cuitlatec, Tequistlatecan, Huave
MayanMayan, Xincan, Lencan, Jicaquean
Colombian–Central AmericanChibchan, Misumalpan, Mangue, Subtiaba; sometimes Lencan, Jicaquean, Chochoan, Betoi
Venezuelan–AntilleanArawakan, Cariban, Guamo, Otomaco, Yaruro, Warao
AndeanQuechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, Chipaya
Ecuadorian–Colombian
Páez, Guambiano, Cuaiquer, Cayapa, Colorado, Camsá, Cofán, Esmeralda, Ecuadorian Quechua
Orinoco–AmazonYanomaman, Piaroa, Arawakan/Maipurean, Cariban, Jotí, Uruak/Ahuaqué, Sapé, Jukude
AmazonArawakan/Maipurean, Arauan/Arawan, Cariban, Chapacuran, Ge/Je, Panoan, Puinavean, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tupian
Southern ConeMapudungun, Guaycuruan, Chon

Lexical diffusion

Pache, et al. note that the word ‘dog’ is shared across various unrelated language families of the Americas, and use this word as a case study of lexical diffusion due to trade and contact.
In California, identical roots for ‘dog’ are found in:
In South America, a root for ‘dog’ is shared by Uru-Chipayan and several unrelated neighboring languages of lowland Bolivia, as well as Guaicuruan. An identical root for ‘dog’ is also shared by Huastec and Atakapa, which are very geographically distant from each other although both are located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. Areal words for ‘dog’ are also shared across the U.S. Southeast, as well as across Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican areal words for ‘dog’ diffused unidirectionally from certain language families to others, and are listed below:

North America

Northern Northwest Coast

This linguistic area was proposed by Jeff Leer, and may be a subarea of the Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final syntax. Languages are Aleut, Haida, Eyak, and Tlingit.
Leer considers the strong areal traits to be:
  • lack of labial obstruents
  • promiscuous number marking
  • periphrastic possessive construction

Northwest Coast

This linguistic area is characterized by elaborate consonant systems. Languages are Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Takelma, and Lower Chinook. Phonological areal traits include:
Typical shared morphological traits include:
  • reduplication processes: including iterative, continuative, progressive, plural, collective
  • numeral classifiers
  • alienable/inalienable oppositions in nouns
  • pronominal plural
  • nominal plural
  • verbal reduplication signifying distribution, repetition, etc.
  • suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs
  • verbal evidential markers
  • locative-directional markers in the verb
  • visibility/invisibility opposition in demonstratives
  • nominal and verbal reduplication signaling the diminutive
  • passive-like constructions
  • negative appearing as the first element in a clause regardless of the usual word order
  • lexically paired singular and plural verb stems

Plateau

The Plateau linguistic area includes Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala language, Klamath, Kutenai, and Interior Salishan. Primary shared phonological features of this linguistic area include:
  • glottalized stops
  • velar/uvular contrasting series
  • multiple laterals
Other less salient shared traits are:
  • labiovelars
  • one fricative series
  • velar fricatives
  • series of glottalized resonants contrasting with plain resonants
  • word-medial and word-final consonant clusters of four or more consonants
  • vowel systems of only 3 or 4 vowel positions
  • vowel-length contrast
  • size-shape-affective sound symbolism involving consonantal interchanges
  • pronominal plural
  • nominal plural
  • prefixation of subject person markers of verbs
  • suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs
  • several kinds of reduplication
  • numeral classifiers
  • locative-directional markers in verbs
  • different roots of the singular and the plural for various actions, such as 'sit', 'stand', 'take'
  • quinary-decimal numerical system

Northern California

The Northern California linguistic area consists of many Hokan languages. Languages include Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Maiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana,.
Features of this linguistic area have been described by Mary Haas. They include:
  • rarity of uvular consonants: they occur in Klamath, Wintu, Chimariko, and Pomoan
  • retroflexed stops
  • rarity of a distinct series of voiced stops except in the east–west strip of languages including Kashaya Pomo, Wintu-Patwin, and Maidu
  • consonant sound symbolism: in Yurok, Wiyot, Hupa, Tolowa, Karuk, and Yana
Washo, spoken in the Great Basin area, shares some traits common to the Northern California linguistic area.
  • pronominal dual
  • quinary/decimal numeral system
  • absence of vowel-initial syllables
  • free stress

Northwest California

Northwest California is a subarea of the Northern California linguistic area. It includes Wiyot, Yurok, Hupa, and Karuk.

Central California

Golla notes that Esselen shares typological features with Utian, Miwok, Costanoan, such as "the absence of a glottalized series, and... a relatively analytic morphosyntax", which are also similar to typological features found in Northern Uto-Aztecan languages. He suggests that there was a linguistic area that stretched from the Sierra Nevada through Sacramento, and from the San Joaquin Delta to the San Francisco Bay.
Shaul also proposes typological connections between Esselen, Salinan, Chumashan, some Utian languages, and Uto-Aztecan. Similarities between Utian and various neighboring language families have also been noted by Callaghan.

Clear Lake

Clear Lake is clearly a linguistic area, and is centered around Clear Lake, California. Languages are Lake Miwok, Patwin, East and Southeastern Pomo, and Wappo. Shared features include:
  • retroflexed dentals
  • voiceless l
  • glottalized glides
  • 3 series of stops

South Coast Range

Languages in Sherzer's "Yokuts-Salinan-Chumash" area, which includes Chumash, Esselen, and Salinan, share the following traits.
  • 3 series of stops - also in the Clear Lake area
  • retroflexed sounds - also in the Clear Lake area
  • glottalized resonants
  • prefixation of verbal subject markers)
  • presence of /h, ɨ, c, ŋ/ in the Greater South Coast Range area
  • t/ṭ contrast in the Greater South Coast Range area, as well as other parts of California
In an expanded version, the Greater South Coast Range linguistic area also includes Yokutsan and several Northern Uto-Aztecan languages.

Great Basin

This linguistic area is defined by Sherzer and Jacobsen. Languages are Numic and Washo. Shared traits include:
  • k/kʷ contrast
  • bilabial fricatives /ɸ, β/
  • presence of /xʷ, ŋ, ɨ/
  • overtly marked nominal system
  • inclusive/exclusive pronominal distinction
However, the validity of this linguistic area is doubtful, as pointed out by Jacobsen, since many traits of the Great Basin area are also common to California languages. It may be an extension of the Northern California linguistic area.

Southern California–Western Arizona

This linguistic area has been demonstrated in Hinton. Languages are Yuman, Cupan, and less extensively Takic. Shared traits include:
  • k/q distinction
  • presence of /kʷ, tʃ, x/
The Yuman and Cupan languages share the most areal features, such as:
  • kʷ/qʷ contrast
  • s/ʂ contrast
  • r/l contrast
  • presence of /xʷ, ɲ, lʲ/
  • small vowel inventory
  • sound symbolism
The influence is strongly unidirectional from Yuman to Cupan, since the features considered divergent within the Takic subgroup. According to Sherzer, many of these traits are also common to Southern California languages.
Shaul and Andresen have proposed a Southwestern Arizona linguistic area as well, where speakers of Piman languages are hypothesized to have interacted with speakers of Yuman languages as part of the Hohokam archaeological culture. The single trait defining this area is the presence of retroflex stops.

Pueblo

The Pueblo linguistic area consists of Keresan, Tanoan, Zuni, Hopi, and some Apachean branches.

Plains

The Plains Linguistic Area, according to Sherzer, is the "most recently constituted of the culture areas of North America." Languages are Athabaskan, Algonquian, Siouan, Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, and Tonkawa. The following areal traits are characteristic of this linguistic area, though they are also common in other parts of North America.
  • prefixation of subject person markers in verbs
  • pronominal plurals
Frequent traits, which are not shared by all languages, include:
  • one stop series
  • the voiceless velar fricative /x/
  • alienable/inalienable opposition in nouns
  • nominal plural suffix
  • inclusive/exclusive opposition
  • nominal diminutive suffix
  • animate/inanimate gender
  • evidential markers in verbs
  • lack of labiovelars
  • presence of /ð/
Southern Plains areal traits include:
  • phonemic pitch
  • presence of /kʷ, r/
  • voiced/voiceless fricatives

Northeast

The Northeast linguistic area consists of Winnebago, Northern Iroquoian, and Eastern Algonquian. Central areal traits of the Northeast Linguistic Area include the following.
  • a single series of stops
  • a single series of fricatives
  • presence of /h/
  • nominal plural
  • noun incorporation
In New England, areal traits include:
  • vowel system with /i, e, o, a/
  • nasalized vowels
  • pronominal dual
New England Eastern Algonquian languages and Iroquoian languages share the following traits.
  • nasalized vowels ; for instance, Proto-Eastern Algonquian *a- is nasalized due to influence from Iroquioan languages, which have two nasalized vowels in its proto-language, *ɛ̃ and *õ.
  • pronominal dual
The boundary between the Northeast and Southeast linguistic areas is not clearly determined, since features often extend over to territories belonging to both linguistic areas.

Southeast

Gulf languages include Muskogean, Chitimacha, Atakapa, Tunica language, Natchez, Yuchi, Ofo, Biloxi –
sometimes also Tutelo, Catawban, Quapaw, Dhegiha ; Tuscarora, Cherokee, and Shawnee.
Bilabial or labial fricatives are considered by Sherzer to be the most characteristic trait of the Southeast Linguistic Area. Various other shared traits have been found by Robert L. Rankin and T. Dale Nicklas.

Mesoamerican

This linguistic area consists of the following language families and branches.
Some languages formerly considered to be part of the Mesoamerican sprachbund, but are now considered to lack main diagnostic traits of Mesoamerican area languages, include Cora, Huichol, Lenca, Jicaquean, and Misumalpan.

Mayan

The Mayan Linguistic Area is considered by most scholars to be part of the Mesoamerican area. However, Holt & Bright distinguish it as a separate area, and include the Mayan, Xincan, Lencan, and Jicaquean families as part of the Mayan Linguistic Area. Shared traits include:
  • presence of glottalized consonants and alveolar affricates
  • absence of voiced obstruents and labiovelar stops

South America

Colombian–Central American

Colombian–Central American consists of Chibchan, Misumalpan, Mangue, and Subtiaba; sometimes Lencan, Jicaquean, Chocoan, and Betoi are also included.
This linguistic area is characterized by SOV word order and postpositions. This stands in contrast to the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area, where languages do not have SOV word order.
Holt & Bright define a Central American Linguistic Area as having the following areal traits. Note that these stand in direct opposition to the traits defined in their Mayan Linguistic Area.
  • presence of voiced obstruents and labiovelar stops
  • absence of glottalized consonants and alveolar affricates
Constenla's Colombian–Central American area consists primarily of Chibchan languages, but also include Lencan, Jicaquean, Misumalpan, Chocoan, and Betoi. This area consists of the following areal traits.
  • voicing opposition in stops and fricatives
  • exclusive SOV word order
  • postpositions
  • mostly Genitive-Noun order
  • Noun-Adjective order
  • Noun-Numeral order
  • clause-initial question words
  • suffixation or postposed particle for negatives
  • absence of gender opposition in pronouns and inflection
  • absence of possessed/nonpossessed and alienable/inalienable possession oppositions
  • "morpholexical economy" - presence of lexical compounds rather than independent roots. This is similar to calques found in Mesoamerica, but with a more limited number of compounding elements. For instance, in Guatuso, there is one compounding element of liquid substances, one compounding element for pointed extremities, one for flat surfaces, and so on.

Venezuelan–Antillean

This linguistic area, consisting of Arawakan, Cariban, Guamo, Otomaco, Yaruro, and Warao, is characterized by VO word order, and is described by Constenla. Shared traits are:
  • exclusive VO word order, and absence of SOV word order
  • absence of voicing opposition in obstruents
  • Numeral-Noun order
  • Noun-Genitive order
  • presence of prepositions
The Venezuelan–Antillean could also extend to the western part of the Amazon Culture Area, where there are many Arawakan languages with VO word order.

Andean

This linguistic area, consisting of Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, and Chipaya, is characterized by SOV word order and elaborate suffixing.
Quechuan and Aymaran languages both have:
  • SOV basic word order
  • suffixing morphology; other similar morphological structures
Büttner's includes Quechuan, Aymaran, Callahuaya, and Chipaya. Puquina, an extinct but significant language in this area, appears to not share these phonological features. Shared phonological traits are:
  • glottalized stops and affricates
  • aspirated stops and affricates
  • uvular stops
  • presence of /ɲ, lʲ/
  • retroflexed affricates - more limited in distribution
  • absence of glottal stop /ʔ/
  • limited vowel systems with /i, a, u/
Constenla defines a broader Andean area including the languages of highland Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and possibly also some lowland languages east of that Andes that have features typical of the Andean area. This area has the following areal traits.
  • absence of the high-mid opposition in back vowels
  • absence of the opposition of voiced/voiceless affricates
  • presence of the voiceless alveolar affricate, voiceless prepalatal fricative, palatal lateral, palatal nasal, retroflexed fricatives or affricates
  • Adjective-Noun order
  • clause-initial interrogative words
  • accusative case
  • genitive case
  • passive construction

Statistical studies

Quantitative studies on the Andes and overlapping areas have found the following traits to be characteristic of these areas in a statistically significant way.
Morphosyntactic features
A statistical study of argument marking features in languages of South America found that both the Andes and Western South America constitute linguistic areas, with some traits showing a statistically significant relationship to both areas. The unique and shared traits of the two areas are shown in the following table.
Andes onlyBoth Andes and Western South AmericaWestern South America only
Subject-object-verb constituent orderUse of both case and indexation as argument marking strategiesMarked neutral case marking patterns in ditransitive constructions
Suffixes as verbal person markersVerbally marked applicative constructions
The R argument role can be indexed in ditransitive constructions
Accusative case alignment for NP arguments
Phonological features
Phonologically, the following segments and segmental features are areal for the Andes:
Consonants

Amazon

The Amazon linguistic area includes the Arawakan/Maipurean, Arauan/Arawan, Cariban, Chapacuran, Ge/Je, Panoan, Puinavean, Tacanan, Tucanoan, and Tupian families.
Derbyshire & Pullum and Derbyshire describe the characteristics of this linguistic area in detail. Traits include:
  • objects preceding subjects, such as VOS, OVS, and OSV; word order in OVS and OSV languages tends to be highly flexible
  • verb agreement with both subject and object
  • predictability of when subjects and objects will be full noun phrases or when they will be signalled by verbal affixes
  • use of nominalizations for relative clauses and other subordinate clauses
  • nominal modifiers following their head nouns
  • no agentive passive constructions
  • indirect-speech forms are nonexistent in most languages and rare in the languages that do have them; thus, they rely on direct speech constructions
  • absence of coordinating conjunctions
  • extensive use of right-dislocated paratactic constructions
  • extensive use of particles that are phrasal subconstituents syntactically and phonologically, but are sentence operators or modifiers semantically
  • tendency toward ergative subject marking
  • highly complex morphology
Noun-classifier systems are also common across Amazonian languages. Derbyshire & Payne list three basic types of classifier systems.
  • Numeral: lexico-syntactic forms, which are often obligatory in expressions of quantity and normally are separate words.
  • Concordial: a closed grammatical system, consisting of morphological affixes or clitics and expressing class agreement with some head noun. However, they may also occur on nouns or verbs.
  • Verb incorporation: lexical items are incorporated into the verb stem, signalling some classifying entity of the associated noun phrase.
Derbyshire also notes that Amazonian languages tend to have:
  • ergatively organized systems
  • evidence of historical drift from ergative to accusative marking
  • certain types of split systems
Mason has found that in many languages of central and eastern Brazil, words end in vowels, and stress is ultimate.
Lucy Seki has also proposed an Upper Xingu Linguistic Area in northern Brazil.

Validity

The validity of Amazonia as a linguistic area has been called into question by recent research, including quantitative studies. A study of argument marking parameters in 74 South American languages by Joshua Birchall found that “not a single feature showed an areal distribution for Amazonia as a macroregion. This suggests that Amazonia is not a good candidate for a linguistic area based on the features examined in this study.” Instead, Birchall finds evidence for three “macroregions” in South America: the Andes, Western South America, and Eastern South America, with some overlap in features between the Andes and Western South America.
Based on that study and similar findings, Patience Epps and Lev Michael claim that “an emerging consensus points to Amazonia not forming a linguistic area sensu strictu.”
Epps shows that Wanderwörter are spread across the languages of Amazonia. Morphosyntax is also heavily borrowed across neighboring unrelated Amazonian languages.

Ecuadorian–Colombian

This is a subarea of the Andean Linguistic Area, as defined by Constenla. Languages include Páez, Guambiano, Cuaiquer, Cayapa, Colorado, Camsá, Cofán, Esmeralda, and Ecuadorian Quechua. Shared traits are:
  • high-mid opposition in front vowels
  • absence of glottalized consonants
  • presence of the glottal stop /ʔ/ and voiceless bilabial fricative /ɸ/
  • absence of uvular stops /q, ɢ/
  • rounding opposition in non-front vowels
  • lack of person inflection in nouns
  • prefixes expressing tense or aspect distinctions

Vaupés (Vaupés–Içana)

The Vaupés linguistic area includes Eastern Tukanoan, Arawakan, Nadahup, and Kakua–Nukak language families, along with the local lingua franca Nheengatú. The linguistic area has been well studied by various linguists.
Shared areal traits include:

Caquetá–Putumayo

The Caquetá–Putumayo linguistic area includes:
Shared traits include:
  • first-person plural inclusive/exclusive contrast
  • second-position tense-aspect-mood clitics
  • loss of object cross-referencing suffixes
  • verbal morphology restructuring
  • borrowing of classifiers
  • inhibition against lexical borrowing
  • classifier systems
  • /ɨ/

Orinoco–Amazon

The Orinoco–Amazon Linguistic Area, or the Northern Amazon Culture Area, is identified by Migliazza. Languages include Yanomaman, Piaroa, Arawakan/Maipurean, Cariban, Jotí, Uruak/Ahuaqué, Sapé, and Jukude. Common areal traits are:
  • a shared pattern of discourse redundancy
  • ergative alignment
  • objects preceding verbs, such as SOV and OVS word order
  • lack of active-passive distinction
  • relative clauses formed by apposition and nominalization
The following traits have diffused from west to east :
  • nasalization
  • aspiration
  • glottalization

Southern Guiana (Northeastern Amazonian)

The Southern Guiana linguistic area includes mostly Cariban languages, some Arawakan languages, Sálivan languages, Tupí-Guaranían languages, and Taruma. Yanomaman, Warao, Arutani, Sapé, and Jukude are sometimes also included.
According to Carlin, the Arawakan language Mawayana has borrowed many grammatical features from Cariban languages, particularly Tiriyó and Waiwai. On the other hand, Wapishana, an Arawakan language that is closely related Mawayana, lacks these features.
Shared grammatical features, Epps and Michael, and Lüpke et al. ) include:
  • first-person plural exclusive distinction
  • nominal tense marking
  • marking on nouns or verbs to express ‘pity’ or ‘recognition of unfortunate circumstance’
  • frustrative marker on verbs
  • ‘similative’ marker on nominals

Tocantins–Mearim Interfluvium

The Tocantins–Mearim Interfluvium linguistic area includes several Tupí–Guaranían and Jêan languages.
Shared grammatical traits include:
  • change in a grammatical particle
  • change in gerund
  • loss of first-person plural inclusive-exclusive contrast
  • argumentative case

Upper Xingu

The Upper Xingu linguistic area includes more than a dozen languages belonging to the Cariban, Arawakan, Jêan, and Tupían families, as well as the language isolate Trumai.
Lucy Seki Xingu is an "incipient" linguistic area, since many of the languages had arrived in the Upper Xingu area after the arrival of the Portuguese. Shared linguistic traits include:
  • loss of a masculine-feminine gender distinction in the Arawakan languages of the region
  • diffusion of /ɨ/ into Xingu Arawakan languages from their Cariban or Tupí-Guaranían neighbors
  • p > h shift in Cariban and Tupí-Guaranían
  • change to CV syllable structure in Cariban
  • diffusion of /ts/ into the Xingu Cariban languages from Arawakan
  • diffusion of nasal vowels into the Xingu Arawakan and Cariban languages from neighboring Tupí-Guaranían languages
Influence is multidirectional, as noted by Epps and Michael.

Mamoré–Guaporé

Crevels and van der Voort propose a Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area in eastern lowland Bolivia and Rondonia, Brazil. In Bolivia, many of the languages were historically spoken at the Jesuit Missions of Moxos and also the Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos.
According to Campbell, the Mamoré–Guaporé or Guaporé–Mamoré linguistic area includes over 50 languages from 17 different families. Language families and branches in the linguistic area include Arawakan, Chapacuran, Jabuti, Rikbaktsá, Nambikwaran, Pano-Tacanan, and Tupian languages. Language isolates in the linguistic area are Cayuvava, Itonama, Movima, Chimane/Mosetén, Canichana, Yuracaré, Leco, Mure, Aikanã, Kanoê, and Kwazá, Irantxe, and Chiquitano. Areal features include:
  • a high incidence of prefixes
  • evidentials
  • directionals
  • verbal number
  • lack of nominal number
  • lack of classifiers
  • inclusive/exclusive distinction
Muysken et al. also performed a detailed statistical analysis of the Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area.

Chaco

According to Campbell, the Gran Chaco linguistic area includes Charrúan, Enlhet-Enenlhet, Guaicurúan, Guachí, Lule-Vilelan, Matacoan, Payaguá, Zamucoan, and some Tupí-Guaranían languages.
Campbell and Grondona consider the Mataco–Guaicuru, Mascoyan, Lule-Vilelan, Zamucoan, and some southern Tupi-Guarani languages to be part of a Chaco linguistic area. Common Chaco areal features include SVO word order and active-stative alignment. Other shared traits, some of which are also found outside the Gran Chaco area, include:
  • gender that is not overtly marked on nouns, but is present in demonstratives, depending on the gender of the nouns modified
  • genitive classifiers for possessed domestic animals
  • SVO word order
  • active-stative verb alignment
  • large set of directional verbal affixes
  • demonstrative system with rich contrasts including visible vs. not visible
  • some adjectives as polar negatives
  • resistance to borrowing foreign words

South Cone

The languages of the South Cone area, including Mapudungun, Guaycuruan, and Chon, share the following traits :
  • Semantic notions of position signaled morphologically by means of "many devices to situate the visual location of the noun subject or object relative to the speaker; tense, aspect and number are expressed as part of the morphology of location, direction, and motion".
  • palatalization
  • more back consonants than front consonants
  • SVO basic word order

Fuegian

Adelaar and Muysken note that the languages of the Tierra del Fuego, namely Chonan, Kawesqaran, Chono, and Yahgan, share areal traits relating to encliticization, suffixation, compounding, and reduplication, as well as object-initial word order.