History of Asia
The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia. The continent is home to two of the world's oldest, continuous civilizations, Chinese civilization and Indian civilization.
Asia was also home to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley and Yellow river civilizations. These civilizations were among the first in the world, and developed around fertile river valleys as they were conducive to agriculture. They shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other inventions such as writing likely developed independently as did Cities, states, and empires.
The steppe region had long been inhabited by nomads, and from the central steppes, they could reach all parts of the Asian continent. The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated. Mountains and deserts such as the Caucasus, Himalayas, Karakum and Gobi Desert formed natural barriers against the steppe nomads. The urban centers were technologically and culturally more advanced, but could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grassland to support a large horse mounted force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in West Asia were soon forced to adopt local customs.
Asia has been the birthplace of many religions. They include Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, as well as Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Other religions include Zoroastrianism and the now dead religion of Manichaeism. The spread of Islam ushered in the Islamic Golden Age and the Timurid Renaissance, which later went on to influence the Islamic gunpowder empires.
The history of Asia includes major developments such as the invention of gunpowder in medieval China, which was later developed by the Gunpowder empires, mainly the Mughals and Safavids, and led to significant advancements in warfare. The Silk Road, helped spread cultures, languages, religions, as well as diseases throughout Asia and Europe.
Prehistory
A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa, India shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BC.Göbekli Tepe is a Neolithic site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 and 8000 BC, the site comprises a number of large circular structures supported by massive stone pillars – the world's oldest known megaliths.
The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 8000–7000 BC, Neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of Neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.
Around 5500 BC the Halafian culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Anatolia, and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture.
In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of Sumer and Elam. Since there was little rainfall, irrigation systems were necessary. The Ubaid culture flourished from 5500 BC.
Ancient
Bronze Age
The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which was centered mostly in the western part of the Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the destruction of these regions around 1700 BC is debatable, although evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters. This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BC. During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and develop into Hinduism.
China and Vietnam were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age, the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam.
In Ban Chiang, Thailand, bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC. In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad.
Iron and Axial Age
The Iron Age saw the widespread use of iron tools, weaponry, and armor throughout the major civilizations of Asia.Middle East
The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BC. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly centralized government, and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in Darius the Great's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials.The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism. Developed by the philosopher Zoroaster, the religion introduced an early form of monotheism to the area and tenets such as spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an end time, and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell. It also banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals. Rooted in ancient religious practices predating known history, these concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses.
The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and was a major influence in art, politics, and religion.
Alexander the Great conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BC, creating the brief Hellenistic period. However, he was unable to establish stability; after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the Seleucid Empire, followed by the Parthian Empire. By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the Sassanid Empire, also known as the second Persian Empire.
The Roman Empire would later control parts of Western Asia. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.
India
The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which began in the Indian sub-continent, were important influences on South, East and Southeast Asia.By 600 BC, the Indian subcontinent was politically fragmented into numerous states, including the sixteen major Mahājanapadas and many smaller kingdoms and republics that often competed and feuded with one another.
In 327 BC, Alexander the Great advanced through Bactria and crossed into northwestern India. He campaigned across the Punjab to the Beas River, but his army refused to march farther east into the Ganges basin, forcing him to retreat. The Macedonian withdrawal weakened Greek control in the region and opened the way for new powers.
Shortly afterward, Chandragupta Maurya, with the counsel of Chanakya, overthrew the Nanda dynasty around 321 BC and established the Maurya Empire. The Mauryan state became one of the world’s largest empires of its time, stretching north to the Himalayas, east into what is now Assam, west beyond modern Pakistan, and annexing Balochistan and much of present-day Afghanistan at its greatest extent. South of the empire lay Tamilakam, an independent region dominated by the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.
The Mauryan Empire was notable for its sophisticated administration. Chandragupta and his successors ruled through an autocratic monarchy supported by a standing army, provincial governors, a complex bureaucracy, a regulated taxation system, state monopolies in key commodities, standardized coinage, and even a postal network.
Chandragupta’s grandson, Ashoka, expanded Mauryan control across almost the entire subcontinent. Following his conversion to Buddhism, Ashoka promoted dhamma, non-violence, and public welfare through his famous edicts, leaving a lasting impact on Indian society and religion. After Ashoka’s death, the empire gradually fragmented; by 185 BC the last Mauryan ruler was overthrown, and successor states arose in the north and northwest, including the Śuṅgas, Indo-Greeks, and Śakas.
The Kushan Empire, founded by Central Asian invaders from the northwest, became a major power across northern India and Central Asia. Under Emperor Kanishka, the Kushans were notable patrons of Buddhism, supporting its spread along the Silk Roads into Central Asia and China. While Buddhism flourished under their rule, in later centuries its close association with foreign dynasties contributed to perceptions of it as an “outside” religion, a factor in its eventual decline within India.
The Gupta Empire, founded by Chandragupta I around AD 320, later unified much of northern India through conquest and alliance. Gupta rule covered less territory than the Mauryas but brought long-lasting stability and is remembered as a classical age of Indian civilization, marked by advances in art, science, and literature. By the mid-6th century AD, sustained invasions by the Hūṇas and internal divisions contributed to Gupta decline and fragmentation.