Warring States period


The Warring States period in Chinese history comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty, which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history.
While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the Eastern Zhou period, when the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The term "Warring States period" comes from the Record of the Warring States, a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty.

Geography

The political geography of the era was dominated by the Seven Warring States, namely:
  • Qin located in the far west, with its core in the Wei River Valley and Guanzhong. This geographical position offered protection from the other states but limited its initial influence.
  • The Three Jins located in the center on the Shanxi plateau were the three successor states of Jin. These were:
  • *Han south, along the Yellow River, controlling the approaches to Qin.
  • *Wei located in the middle, roughly today's eastern Henan Province.
  • *Zhao the northernmost of the three, roughly today's southern Hebei Province as well as northern Shanxi Province.
  • Qi east, centered on the Shandong Peninsula
  • Chu south, with its core territory around the valleys of the Han River and, later, the Yangtze River.
  • Yan northeast, centered on modern-day Beijing. Late in the period it pushed northeast and began to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula
Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include:
  • Royal territory of the Zhou king was near Luoyi in the Han area on the Yellow River.
  • Yue On the southeast coast near Shanghai was the State of Yue, which was highly active in the late Spring and Autumn era but was later annexed by Chu.
  • Zhongshan between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, which was eventually annexed by Zhao in 296 BC.
  • Sichuan states: In the far southwest were the non-Zhou states of Ba and Shu. These ancient kingdoms were conquered by Qin later in the period.
  • Other minor states: There were many minor states which were satellites of the larger ones until they were absorbed. Many were in the Central Plains between the three Jins and Qi and Chu to the south. Some of the more important ones were Song, Lu, Zheng, Wey, Teng, Yue and Zou.

    Periodisation

The eastward flight of the Zhou court in 771 BC marks the start of the Spring and Autumn period. No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include:
  • 481 BCProposed by Song-era historian Lü Zuqian, since this year marks the end of the Spring and Autumn Annals.
  • 476–475 BCSima Qian, author of the Records of the Grand Historian, chose this date as the inaugural year of King Yuan of Zhou.
  • 453 BCThe Partition of Jin saw the formation of Han, Zhao, and Wei, three of the seven warring states.
  • 441 BCThe inaugural year of Zhou Kings starting with King Ai of Zhou.
  • 403 BCThe year when the Zhou court officially recognised Han, Zhao and Wei as states. Sima Guang, author of the Zizhi Tongjian advocates this date as symbolic of eroded Zhou authority.

    History

Background and formation

The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around the 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.
The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.
The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as Jin, Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while the smaller states of the Central Plain, such as Zheng, Lu, Song, Cai, Cao, Chen, and Wey, tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, leading to the seven major warring states.

Partition of Jin (453–403 BC)

The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi.
Confucius, the first and ultimately the most influential of China's philosophers, died in 479 BC. Almost exactly 25 years later, the leaders of Wei, Han, and Zhao Clans attacked the ruler of Jin, defeated him at Ching Yang, near or on the site of modern T'ai-yüan, in 453, and split his domain among themselves. Earl Chih was decapitated, his family exterminated, and his skull was presented to Wu Hsu of the Zhao, who used as a drinking cup. Thus inauspiciously began the age of the Warring States.

Early Warring States

The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC)

In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states.
From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under the leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was Marquess Wen of Wei. In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of Zhongshan to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the Luo River taking the area of Xihe.
The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from the alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to Handan and attacked the small state of Wey. Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning a period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts.
In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state.
In 370 BC, Marquess Wu of Wei died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war, Zhao from the north and Han from the south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result, King Hui of Wei was able to ascend the throne of Wei.
Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi, Lu, and Song. To the south, the weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at Luoyang and held an area north of Luoyang called Shangdang.

Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC)

died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future King Wei, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power.
The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign.
By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty.

Wars of Wei

set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the boundaries of the three states more rational.
In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of Qin.
In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan, was under siege. The state of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great-great-grandson of Sun Tzu, the author of the Art of War, proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling. The battle is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six Stratagems, "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point.
Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher Mencius at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which bears Meng Zi's name.