Human presence in space
Human presence in space is the direct and mediated presence or telepresence of humans in outer space, and in an extended sense across space including astronomical bodies. Human presence in space, particularly through mediation, can take many physical forms from space debris, uncrewed spacecraft, artificial satellites, space observatories, crewed spacecraft, art in space, to human outposts in outer space such as space stations.
While human presence in space, particularly its continuation and permanence can be a goal in itself, human presence can have a range of purposes and modes from space exploration, commercial use of space to extraterrestrial settlement or even space colonization and militarisation of space. Human presence in space is realized and sustained through the advancement and application of space sciences, particularly astronautics in the form of spaceflight and space infrastructure.
Humans have achieved some mediated presence throughout the Solar System, but the most extensive presence has been in orbit around Earth. Humans reached outer space mediated in 1944 and have sustained mediated presence since 1958, as well as having reached space directly for the first time on 12 April 1961 and continuously since the year 2000 with the crewed International Space Station, or since the later 1980s with some few interruptions through crewing its predecessor, the space station Mir. The increasing and extensive human presence in orbital space around Earth, beside its benefits, has also produced a threat to it by carrying with it space debris, potentially cascading into the so-called Kessler syndrome. This has raised the need for regulation and mitigation of such to secure a sustainable access to outer space.
Securing the access to space and human presence in space has been pursued and allowed by the establishment of space law and space industry, creating a space infrastructure. But sustainability has remained a challenging goal, with the United Nations seeing the need to advance long-term sustainability of outer space activities in space science and application, and the United States having it as a crucial goal of its contemporary space policy and space program.
Terminology
For outer space being the dominant expanse of space, "space" is often used synonymously for outer space, referring to human presence in space to human presence across all of space, including astronomical bodies which outer space surrounds.The United States has been using the term "human presence" to identify one of the long-term goals of its space program and its international cooperation. While it traditionally means and is used to name direct human presence, it is also used for mediated presence. Differentiating human presence in space between direct and mediated human presence, meaning human or non-human presence, such as with crewed or uncrewed spacecraft, is rooted in a history of how human presence is to be understood.
Human, particularly direct, presence in space is sometimes replaced with "boots on the ground" or equated with space colonization. But such terms, particularly colonization and even settlement has been avoided and questioned to describe human presence in space, since they employ very particular concepts of appropriation, with historic baggage, addressing the forms of human presence in a particular and not general way.
Alternatively some have used the term "humanization of space", which differs in focusing on the general development, impact and structure of human presence in space.
On an international level the United Nations uses the phrase of "outer space activity" for the activity of its member states in space.
History
Human presence in outer space began with the first launches of artificial object in the mid 20th century, and has increased to the point where Earth is orbited by a vast number of artificial objects and the far reaches of the Solar System have been visited and explored by a range of space probes. Human presence throughout the Solar System is continued by different contemporary and future missions, most of them mediating human presence through robotic spaceflight.First a realized project of the Soviet Union and followed in competition by the United States, human presence in space is now an increasingly international and commercial field.
Representation, participation and regulation
Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue of human access to and presence in space ever since the beginning of spaceflight. Different space agencies, space programs and interest groups such as the International Astronomical Union have been formed supporting or producing humanity's or a particular human presence in space. Representation has been shaped by the inclusiveness, scope and varying capabilities of these organizations and programs.Some rights of non-spacefaring countries to partake in spaceflight have been secured through international space law, declaring space the "province of all mankind", understanding spaceflight as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as imperialist and lacking, particularly regarding regulation of private spceflight.
Additionally to international inclusion the inclusion of women, people of colour and with disability has also been lacking. To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the Justspace Alliance and IAU featured Inclusive Astronomy have been formed in recent years.
Law and governance
Space activity is legally based on the Outer Space Treaty, the main international treaty. Though there are other international agreements such as the significantly less ratified Moon Treaty.The Outer Space Treaty established the basic ramifications for space activity in article one:
"The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind."
And continued in article two by stating:
"Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means."
The development of international space law has revolved much around outer space being defined as common heritage of mankind. The Magna Carta of Space presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 framed outer space explicitly not as terra nullius but as res communis, which subsequently influenced the work of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.
The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs and the International Telecommunication Union are international organizations central for facilitating space regulation, such as space traffic management.
Forms
Signals and radiation
Humans have been producing a range of radiation which has reached space unintentionally as well as intentionally, well before any direct human presence in space.Electromagnetic radiation such as light, of humans, has been reaching even stars as far away as the age of the radiation.
Beginning in the 20th century, humans have been sending radiation significantly into space. Nuclear explosions, especially high-altitude ones have since at times, starting with 1958, just a year after the first satellite Sputnik was launched, introduced strong and broad radiation from humans into space, producing electromagnetic pulses and orbital radiation belts, adding to the explosion's destructive potential on ground and in orbit.
While Earth's and humanities radiation profile is the main material for space based remote Earth observation, but radiation by human activity from Earth and from space has also been an obstacle for human activities, such as spiritual life or astronomy through light pollution and radio spectrum pollution from Earth and space. In the case of radio astronomy radio quiet zones have been kept and sought out, with the far side of the Moon being most pristine facing away from human made electromagnetic interference.
Space junk and human impact
Space junk as product and form of human presence in space has existed ever since the first orbital spaceflights and comes mostly in the form of space debris in outer space. Space debris for example was ejected in 1957 purposefully from an Aerobee launch system in a likely failed attempt to reach for the first time escape velocity from Earth, and therefore space beyond Earth. Most space debris is in orbit around Earth, it can stay there for years to centuries if at altitudes from hundreds to thousands of kilometers, before it falls to Earth. Space debris is a hazard since it can hit and damage spacecraft. Having reached considerable amounts around Earth, policies have been put into place to prevent space debris and hazards, such as international regulation to prevent nuclear hazards in Earth's orbit and the Registration Convention as part of space traffic management.But space junk can also come as result of human activity on astronomical bodies, such as the remains of space missions, like the many artificial objects left behind on the Moon, and on other bodies.
Robotic
Human presence in space has been strongly based on the many robotic spacecraft, particularly as the many artificial satellites in orbit around Earth.Many firsts of human presence in space have been achieved by robotic missions. The first artificial object to reach space, above the 100 km altitude Kármán line, and therefore performing the first sub-orbital flight was MW 18014 in 1944. But the first sustained presence in space was established by the orbital flight of Sputnik in 1957. Followed by a rich number of robotic space probes achieving human presence and exploration throughout the Solar system for the first time.
Human presence at the Moon was established by the Luna programme starting in 1959, with a first flyby and heliocentric orbit, a first arrival of an artificial object on the surface with an impactor, and a for the first time a successful flight to the far side of the Moon. The Moon then was in 1966 visited for the first time by a lander, as well as an orbiter, and in 1970 for the first time a rover landed on an extraterrestrial body.
Interplanetary presence was established at Venus by the Venera program, with a flyby in 1961 and a crash in 1966.
Presence in the outer Solar System was achieved by Pioneer 10 in 1972 and presence in interstellar space by Voyager 1 in 2012.
The 1958 Vanguard 1 is the fourth artificial satellite and the oldest spacecraft still in space and orbit around Earth, though inactive.