Beta Israel
The Beta Israel, or Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish group originating in the Amhara and Tigray regions of northern Ethiopia, where they were historically spread out across more than 500 small villages. The majority were concentrated in what is today North Gondar Zone, Shire Inda Selassie, Wolqayit, Tselemti, Dembia, Segelt, Quara, and Belesa.
The community suffered extensive destruction in the 19th century due to the Mahdist War, as well as persecution by the Ethiopian Empire. In response to these pressures, and influenced by the efforts of Protestant and Messianic Jewish missionaries, a portion of the community converted to Christianity. These converts became known as the Falash Mura. The larger Christian Beta Abraham community is considered a crypto-Judaic branch of the Beta Israel community.
A large wave of Aliyah from Ethiopia starting in the 1980s brought most Beta Israel to Israel, and several Israeli government initiatives have facilitated their emigration. The Beta Israel community was classed under the 1950 Law of Return by Yitzhak Rabin, following halakhic and legal debates over their status. Thus, the Israeli government, with support from the United States, began a series of secret airlift operations to bring the Beta Israel to Israel, including Operation Moses, Operation Joshua, and Operation Solomon. The majority of Beta Israel now live in Israel. By the end of 2023, approximately 171,600 Jews of Ethiopian descent were living in Israel, including around 93,600 born in Ethiopia and 78,000 born in Israel to Ethiopian-born parents.
Terminology
The Beta Israel community,, has been known by several names throughout its history.The local populace referred them to Esraelawi, Yehudi or ''Ayhud.
The name Ayhud however, is rarely used in the community, as Ethiopian Christians had used it as a derogatory term. The term has increased in usage in the 20th century as the Beta Israel strengthened its ties with other Jewish communities.
Within the community, the term Ibrawi was used to refer to the chawa in the community, in contrast to the barya.
The colloquial Ethiopian/Eritrean term Falasha or Felasha, which means "landless", "wanderers", or "exiles", was given to the community in the 15th century by the Emperor Yeshaq I; after they were conquered by the Ethiopian Empire, its use is now considered offensive, though initially it may have not been considered derogatory. The term appears in Jewish texts in the 15th century.
Other lesser used terms by which the community have been known by include Tebiban''.
Geography
Prior to the large-scale immigration of the community to Israel, they were primarily located in the northwestern regions of Ethiopia, historically known as Abyssinia. The majority of the community lived in areas such as the Semien Mountains, Begemder, Tsegede, Wolqayt, Tselemti, Dembiya, and Segelt. Smaller groups also resided in the Shewa region, including Addis Ababa, and in parts of Eritrea, particularly Asmara. The settlements were situated along the tributaries of the Tekezé River and near Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile. This area included the Simien Mountains, which includes Ras Dashen, the highest peak in Ethiopia- reaching an elevation of 4,549 meters. While the high-altitude terrain above 3,000 meters provided strategic advantages for defense and served as natural fortifications, it was difficult for farming due to thin, rocky soil and steep slopes. The mountain air in these highlands, known locally as Dega, is regarded as conducive to good health, longevity, and physical vitality.The communal settlements were typically situated near streams, rivers, and mountainous areas, often at elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level, within a climate zone called Waina Dega. This zone has a temperate climate with average temperatures ranging between 2.5 °C and 18 °C. The region receives significant rainfall, averaging around 1,550 millimeters annually, with two distinct rainy seasons. The area also benefits from fertile soil, making it suitable for agriculture, although the steep, rocky terrain at higher elevations, like those found in the Simien Mountains, can present challenges for farming.
Beta Israel communities typically avoided lowland areas, known as Kolla, due to the risks posed by tropical diseases like Malaria, parasites, and dangerous wildlife and the threat posed by potentially hostile neighboring tribes. However, during waves of immigration to Israel, members of the community were forced to cross hazardous lowland regions, this journey entailed significant hardship, and thousands perished, particularly during prolonged periods of waiting in refugee camps located in the Sudanese desert and in Addis Ababa.
History
Ancient history
The earliest archaeological evidence indicating the presence of Jews in the region comes from two incense burners discovered at Adi Qereh site near the ancient capital Yeha of Dʿmt, inscribed in Sabaic and dated to approximately 600 BCE. These inscriptions refer to "Hebrews" living among the local population. Showing an early Jewish presence in the area, before the destruction of the First temple in Jerusalem.According to the researchers, these hereditary findings are consistent with archaeological findings on the penetration of crops domesticated in the Near East indicating that 2,500 years ago people from the Near East migrated to the Ethiopian Highlands bringing foreign crops such as wheats, barley and lentils.
Early Jewish historian, Josephus wrote that the migration of 100,000 Jews to Kush occurred during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter. Support for the large number of Jews who came to the region can be obtained from the words of the Philo, who says that at the time there were 1,000,000 Jews living in Egypt, Libya and Cush. Italian scholar Filosseno Luzzatto cites this in reference to the custom of offering sacrifices among Ethiopian Jews was influenced by the Land of Onias.
In 325, Ezana of Axum proclaimed Christianity as the state religion, leading to the construction of monasteries and churches throughout the empire. An inscription from this period references an insurrection led by a rebel named Pinchas, whose insurgents revolted and retreated to the Simien Mountains. It also details the surrender and the raising of taxes from Simien to Aksum.
During the Amoraim period the Babylonian Talmud mentions a man named Yehuda from Aksum in Hanuda came to Jerusalem to visit the Temple.
The collapse of the Himyar Kingdom occurred following a pogrom led by Dhu Nuwas, which targeted the Aksumites and local Christian communities in Najran. In response, Kaleb of Axum launched a military campaign, with the support of the Byzantine Empire, Justin II. This intervention led to the death of Dhu Nuwas and the subsequent Aksumite annexation of Himyar. According to the account of the Greek traveler Cosmas Indicopleustes from Alexandria, a significant portion of Jews were either forcibly converted to Christianity or exiled to the barren mountain known as Semiani, which refers to the Simien Mountains. Aksumite inscriptions from the 6th century also record another outbreak of tensions between Jewish and Christian communities in Aksum.
In the 9th century, a traveler known as Eldad ha-Dani, often referred to as "The Danite," arrived in the city of Kairouan. Eldad claimed to come from an independent Jewish kingdom located in the mountains, south of Kush. Eldad brought Halachic books with him, today scholars find it almost completely resembles the Halacha of the Beta Israel. Eldad asserted that his community did not adhere to the Talmud, but instead preserved a form of Judaism only adhering to the Written Torah. Upon his arrival, Eldad's claims were met with skepticism by the local Jewish community in Kairouan.
In response, the Jewish leaders sent a letter to Tzemach Gaon the Geon of Sura, a prominent halachic authority of the time, seeking clarification regarding Eldad's identity and religious practices. Tzemach Gaon affirmed that Eldad was indeed Jewish and said he belonged to the Tribe of Dan who settled in South of Cush, 135 years before the destruction of the First Temple. Eldad's works would be one of the first works bringing knowledge to the diaspora about the customs of the Beta Israel, his testimonies was also accepted and cited by the many prominent Geonim. His writings also gave to the rise of the legend Prester John.
In the mid 10th century, a revolt sparked, lead by Gudit, who lead a revolt and sparked chaos across the Kingdom. She was a princess of Gideon IV, the King of the Simien. After her father was killed in battle with the Aksumite Empire, Gudit inherited his throne. Eventually, she defeated the Aksumite. Though her origins are murky, Ethiopian and Arab sources depict her as a Jewess zealot. She's credited for "laying waste" onto Aksum in addition the burning of Debre Damo monastery, in which after the sacking her name was changed from Esther to Gudit. For the burning and destruction of Axum, regarded as a holy city, the Kebra Nagast uses it a pretext as grounds to persecute the Beta Israel. She's also credited for her assassinations and the fall of the Aksumite dynasty.
During this time, Arab writer Ibn Hawqal writes:
"The land of Habash has been ruled by a woman for many years, and she killed the king of Abyssinia, and ruled by a people called the Al-Dani . To this day, she rules an independent kingdom, and her kingdom borders Abyssinia to the south."Additionally, Gudit established trade relations with the Arab caliphates, a departure from the policies of previous Aksumite rulers, who had refrained from doing so in the past. As part of these diplomatic efforts, she sent a zebra to the King of Yemen, who in turn, presented it as a gift to the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Qadir. who mentions he received the gift from a Jewess, who had overthrown the King of Abyssinia. Following her death, Gudit was eventually supplanted by the Zagwe dynasty.