Egyptian cuisine
Egyptian cuisine makes heavy use of poultry, legumes, vegetables and fruit from Egypt's rich Nile Valley and Delta. Examples of Egyptian dishes include rice-stuffed vegetables and grape leaves, hummus, falafel, shawarma, kebab and kofta. Others include ful medames, mashed fava beans; koshary, lentils and pasta; and molokhiyya, jute leaf stew.
A local type of pita known as is a staple of Egyptian cuisine, and cheesemaking in Egypt dates back to the First Dynasty of Egypt, with Domiati being the most popular type of cheese consumed today.
Egyptian cuisine relies heavily on vegetables and legumes, but can also feature meats, most commonly rabbit and poultry such as squab, chicken, duck, quail and goose. Lamb and beef are commonly used in Egyptian cuisine, particularly for grilling and in a variety of stews and traditional dishes. Goat and camel are also eaten but are not as readily available nationwide. Offal is also a popular street food, often served in sandwiches. Fish and seafood are widely consumed across Egypt, with coastal regions such as Alexandria, Suez and Port Said being especially known for their seafood cuisine. Freshwater tilapia and mullet are the most popular types of fish in the country.
A significant portion of Egyptian cuisine is vegetarian, largely due to the country's agricultural landscape and historical food traditions. The fertile banks of the Nile River are primarily used for cultivating crops rather than animal grazing, as arable land is limited and livestock farming requires extensive resources such as land, water and fodder. Additionally, the dietary practices of Egypt's Coptic Christians, who observe religious restrictions that mandate an essentially vegan diet for extended periods of the year, further contribute to the prominence of plant-based dishes in Egyptian cuisine.
Tea is the national drink of Egypt, and beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage. While Islam is the majority faith in Egypt and observant Muslims tend to avoid alcohol, alcoholic drinks are still readily available in the country.
Popular desserts in Egypt include baqlawa, basbousa, kunafa and qatayef. Common ingredients in desserts include dates, honey, and almonds.
History
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian cuisine, which remained relatively consistent for over three millennia, was centered around bread and beer, consumed daily by all social classes. These staples were often accompanied by onions, legumes, vegetables, and, for those who could afford it, meat, fish, and poultry. Food preparation included baking, boiling, stewing, grilling, frying, and roasting, with wealthier Egyptians having access to imported spices and sweeteners such as honey and dates.Ancient Egyptians also relied on a variety of dairy products, with cheese and butter playing a role in their diet. Oils for cooking and flavoring were derived from plants such as lettuce, radish, sesame, and safflower, while animal fat was commonly used in food preparation. Vegetables, including garlic, leeks, cucumbers, and various legumes, were widely cultivated, while fruits such as grapes and doum palm nuts were eaten fresh or dried. Archaeological evidence suggests that Egyptians practiced early forms of food preservation, such as drying fruits and salting meats and fish to extend their shelf life.
Meat, including beef, poultry, and fish, was regularly consumed, with archaeological evidence suggesting that even the workers building the pyramids had access to beef. Fruits such as dates, figs, and pomegranates were commonly eaten fresh or dried for preservation. Jute leaves were also cultivated for food.
Banquets, depicted in tomb paintings, were elaborate affairs featuring musicians, dancers, and an abundance of food, including roast meats, stews, vegetables, fruits, and cakes. Bread, typically made from emmer wheat, came in various shapes and textures, while beer, a key dietary component, was brewed from fermented wheat or barley and even functioned as a form of currency. Food in ancient Egypt was not merely sustenance but held deep religious and cultural significance. The goddess Hathor was often invoked during feasts, and offerings of bread, beer, and meat were made to the gods and the deceased in tombs to ensure their well-being in the afterlife.
Although no written recipes from ancient Egypt have survived, information about food preparation has been inferred from objects and utensils discovered in tombs. Several elements of ancient Egyptian cuisine remain part of the modern Egyptian diet, particularly staple foods. Although bread types today are made from different wheat species, traditional varieties that were known in ancient Egypt continue to be produced in Egypt today. The spring festival of Sham Ennessim preserves the ancient custom of eating chickpeas, salted mullet, and onions.
Greco-Roman Egypt
Food in Greco-Roman Egypt reflected both local traditions and foreign influences, particularly from the Greeks and Romans. The staple diet for most people consisted of grains, pulses, oil, and beer. Vegetables such as lentils, chickpeas, onions, cucumbers, and turnips were widely consumed, while fruits, especially dates, were an important source of vitamins. Olive oil, introduced by the Greeks, gradually replaced radish oil, although it remained more expensive. Beer, traditionally made from fermented bread, was the dominant drink in earlier periods, but wine became increasingly popular, especially under Roman rule, with vineyards thriving in regions like Alexandria and Fayoum.The introduction of wheat by the Greeks gradually shifted Egypt's grain consumption from the traditional emmer and spelt to hard wheat, which became more widely cultivated due to its role in tax payments under Ptolemaic rule. Meat, particularly pork, was commonly consumed by those who could afford it, with evidence showing its use in both religious and everyday contexts. Poultry such as ducks, hens, and doves were also consumed, and large dovecotes were built for breeding. Seafood, including fish and oysters from the Mediterranean, was available but primarily consumed by wealthier individuals. Written records from the period also describe the use of a variety of herbs and spices such as coriander, thyme, anise, fennel, and pepper, indicating a sophisticated approach to seasoning.
Social gatherings played an important role in food culture, particularly in the form of symposia, where men gathered to eat, drink, and engage in discussions. Banquet halls, often linked to temples, served as venues for communal meals, celebrations, and even wedding feasts. High-quality food was distinguished from lower-quality offerings, with premium meat and wine being more desirable. Wine, initially a luxury, became widely available and was commonly mixed with water, following Greek and Roman customs. Food consumption varied significantly across social classes, with the wealthy enjoying imported goods, elaborate dishes, and fine wines, while the lower classes relied on staple grains, pulses, and locally available produce.
Medieval Egypt
cuisine was shaped by a combination of agriculture, trade, and cultural influences. The 14th century cookbook Kanz al-Fawa’id fī Tanwi‘ al-Mawa’id provides insight into the era's culinary practices. Egypt's fertile lands, nourished by the Nile, supported the cultivation of native and introduced crops, including rice, sugarcane, and citrus fruits, which arrived following the Arab conquest in 641 CE. The country's central position in the Islamic world also made it a hub for travel and migration, bringing Turks, Kurds, Persians, and other groups whose culinary traditions enriched local cuisine. Recipes in Kanz al-Fawa’id reflect this diversity, with dishes from Morocco, Persia, and Byzantium appearing alongside local specialties.Trade further expanded the range of ingredients available in Egypt. The country imported nuts and fruits from the Levant while exporting local products such as salt-cured fish, cheese, and refined sugar. Egyptian merchants, known as the Karimi, played a key role in the spice trade, sourcing aromatics from India and Yemen. Cairo, as a major urban center, had a well-developed food culture that catered to different social classes. While the elite indulged in lavish feasts, commoners had access to affordable food, including bread, cheese, river mussels, and legumes. Hospitals provided free meals to the sick, and palace kitchens occasionally distributed surplus food to the public.
Food markets and public kitchens were central to urban life. Cairo's markets, described in detail by historian al-Maqrizi, offered a variety of food services, from street vendors selling porridge and grilled meats to professional cooks who prepared meals for those without home kitchens. Regulations ensured food safety and hygiene, requiring bakers and cooks to follow strict cleanliness measures. Public bakeries and communal ovens were widely used, especially in dense city centers where fire hazards discouraged home cooking.
The medieval Egyptian kitchen was well-equipped, especially in wealthier households, where multiple hands worked to prepare complex dishes. Cooking methods involved stoves, clay ovens, and brick dome ovens. Spices, particularly mastic gum, were widely used, likely to mask the strong smell of local meats. The concept of food as medicine, based on Galenic principles, influenced diets, with certain ingredients used to balance bodily humors. Recipes in Kanz al-Fawa’id included not only meals but also medicinal preparations, aphrodisiacs, and hygiene products such as scented toothpicks and soaps. Many culinary traditions included in recipes and cookbooks from medieval Egypt, including staple dishes like molokheya, ful medames, and bamya, have endured into the present day.
Wheat, barley and rice were part of the medieval Egyptian diet, but sources are conflicted about millet. According to Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, it was unknown outside a small area where it was cultivated in Upper Egypt. This seems to be supported by chronicler Muhammad ibn Iyas, who wrote that millet consumption was unusual, if not unheard of, in Cairo. Shihab al-Umari, on the other hand, says it was among the most popular cereal grains consumed in Egypt in that time.
Sorghum was, like millet, cultivated in Upper Egypt, but was not considered a desirable crop by residents of Cairo. There, it was consumed only during famine or other times of scarcity during which sorghum was preferred to other wheat substitutes used to make emergency bread rations like millet, bran, or broad beans.
In The Tale of Judar and His Brothers, an Egyptian story from Thousand and One Arabian Nights, the main character, a poverty-stricken fisherman named Judar, acquires a magic bag belonging to a necromancer of Maghrebi origin. This bag supplies its owner with food like, a rice dish seasoned with cinnamon and mastic, sometimes colored with saffron and prepared stock and tail fat.