Avar language

Avar, also known as Avaric, is a Northeast Caucasian language of the Avar–Andic subgroup that is spoken by Avars, primarily in Dagestan. In 2010, there were approximately one million speakers in Dagestan and elsewhere in Russia.

Geographic distribution

It is spoken mainly in the western and southern parts of the Russian Caucasus republic of Dagestan, and the Balaken, Zaqatala regions of north-western Azerbaijan. Some Avars live in other regions of Russia. There are also small communities of speakers living in the Russian republics of Chechnya and Kalmykia; in Georgia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Jordan, and the Marmara Sea and Maraş region of Turkey. It is spoken by about 1,200,000 people worldwide. UNESCO classifies Avar as vulnerable to extinction.

Status

It is one of six literary languages of Dagestan, where it is spoken not only by the Avar, but also serves as the language of communication between different ethnic and linguistic groups.

Dialects

Glottolog lists 14 dialects of Avar, some of which correspond to the villages where they are spoken. The dialects are listed in alphabetical order based on their name in Glottolog:

Andalal-Gxdatl
Bacadin
Batlux
Hid
Karax
Kaxib
Keleb
Salatav
Shulanin
Untib
Xunzax
Zakataly
Zaqatala

Phonology

There are competing analyses of the distinction transcribed in the table with the length sign. Length is part of the distinction, but so is articulatory strength, so they have been analyzed as fortis and lenis. The fortis affricates are long in the fricative part of the contour, e.g., not in the stop part as in geminate affricates in languages such as Japanese and Italian . Laver analyzes e.g. as a two-segment affricate–fricative sequence .
Avar has five phonemic vowels: /a e i o u/.

Lexical accent

In Avar, accent is contrastive, free and mobile, independent of the number of syllables in the word. Changes in lexical accent placement indicate different semantic meaning and grammatical meanings of a word:

ра́гӏи ~ рагӏи́
ру́гънал ~ ругъна́л

Morphosyntax

Avar is an agglutinative language, of SOV order.
Adverbs do not inflect, outside of inflection for noun class in some adverbs of place: e.g. the in 'inside' and 'in front'. Adverbs of place also distinguish locative, allative, and ablative forms suffixally, such as 'inside', 'to the inside', and 'from the inside'. is an emphatic suffix taken by underived adjectives.

Writing systems

There were some attempts to write the Avar language in the Georgian alphabet as early as the 14th century. The use of the Perso-Arabic script for representing Avar in marginal glosses began in the 15th century. The use of Arabic, which is known as ajam, is still known today.
Peter von Uslar developed a Cyrillic-based alphabet, published in 1889, that also used some Georgian-based letters. Many of its letters have not been encoded in Unicode. The alphabet takes the following form: а, б, в, г, ӷ, д, е, ж, һ,,, і, ј, к, қ,, л, м, н, о, п, ԛ,, р, с, ҫ, т, ҭ, у, х, х̍, хᷱ, ц,, / ц̓, / ꚑ, ч, ч̍, чᷱ, / ч̓, ш, ղ, ղ̓, ղᷱ,
As part of Soviet language re-education policies in 1928 the Ajam was replaced by a Latin alphabet, which in 1938 was in turn replaced by the current Cyrillic script. Essentially, it is the Russian alphabet plus one additional letter called palochka, originally the digit 1 on a manual typewriter. The palochka is not included in common computer keyboard layouts, and is often replaced with a capital Latin letter i or occasionally a small Latin letter L rather than the digit 1.

Cyrillic alphabet

The Avar language is usually written in the Cyrillic script. The letters of the alphabet are :

А а	Б б	В в	Г г	Гъ гъ	Гь гь	ГӀ гӏ	Д д
Е е ,	Ё ё	Ж ж	З з	И и	Й й	К к	Къ къ
Кь кь	КӀ кӏ	КӀкӏ кӏкӏ	Кк кк	Л л	ЛӀ лӏ	Лъ лъ	Лълъ лълъ
М м	Н н	О о	П п	Р р	С с	Сс сс	Т т
ТӀ тӏ	У у	Ф ф	Х х	Хх хх	Хъ хъ	Хь хь	Хьхь хьхь
ХӀ хӏ	Ц ц	Цц цц	ЦӀ цӏ	ЦӀцӏ цӏцӏ	Ч ч	Чч чч	ЧӀ чӏ
ЧӀчӏ чӏчӏ	Ш ш	Щ щ	Ъ ъ	Ы ы	Ь ь	Э э	Ю ю
Я я	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Latin alphabet

The Avar Latin alphabet was originally monocameral. Capital letters were added later. Note that there is no distinction between a cedilla as in and a straight tick as in ; the graphic forms of the letters vary by publication, and k may have a cedilla or t a tick.

Latin	Cyrillic	Arabic	IPA
A a	А а	آ,ا	/a/
B b	Б б	ب	/b/
C c	Ч ч	چ	/t͡ʃ/
Ꞓ ꞓ	ЧӀ чӀ	ڃ	/t͡ʃʼ/
D d	Д д	د	/d/
E e	Э э	ئې، ې	/e/
G ɡ	Г г	ڬ	/ɡ/
Ƣ ƣ	Гъ Гъ	غ	/ʁ/
H h	Гь гь	ﻫ	/h/
Ħ ħ	ХӀ хӀ	ح	/ħ/
Ⱨ ⱨ	ГӀ гӀ	ع	/ʕ/
I i	И и	ئێ، ێ	/i/
J j	Й й, Ь ь	ي	/j/, /Cʲ/
K k	К к	ك	/k/
Ⱪ ⱪ	КӀ кӀ	گ	/kʼ/
L l	Л л	ل	/l/
Ļ ļ	Лъ лъ	ڸ	/t͡ɬ/
Ꝉ̧ ꝉ̧
M m	М м	م	/m/
N n	Н н	ن	/n/
O o	О о	ئۈ، ۈ	/o/
P p	П п	ف	/p/
Q q	Къ къ	ق	/q͡χʼː/
Ꝗ ꝗ	Кь кь	ڨ	/t͡ɬʼː/
R r	Р р	ر	/r/
S s	С с	س	/s/
Ꟊ ꟊ	Ц ц	ص	/t͡s/
Ş ş	Ш ш	ش	/ʃ/
T t	Т т	ت	/t/
Ţ ţ	ТӀ тӀ	ط	/tʼ/
U u	У у	ئۇ، ۇ	/u/
V v	В в	و	/w/, /Cʷ/
X x	Х х	خ	/χ/
Ҳ ҳ	Хь хь	ڮ	/x/
Ӿ ӿ	Хъ хъ	څ	/q͡χː/
Z z	З з	ز	/z/
Ƶ ƶ	Ж ж	ج	/ʒ/
Ⱬ ⱬ	ЦӀ цӀ	ض	/t͡sʼ/
ʼ	Ъ ъ	ئ	/ʔ/

Arabic alphabet

One feature of Avar Arabic alphabet is that similar to alphabets such as Uyghur and Kurdish, the script does not omit vowels and does not rely on diacritics to represent vowels when need be. Instead, modified letters with dot placement and accents have been standardized to represent vowels. Thus, Avar Arabic script is no longer an "impure abjad" unlike its parent systems, it now resembles a proper "alphabet".
While this was not the case for most of the several centuries during which Arabic alphabet has been used for Avar, this has become the case in the latest and most common conventions. This was indeed not the case at the time of writing of a linguistic article for the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1881.

Arabic	Cyrillic	Latin	IPA
ا	А а	A a	/a/
ب	Б б	B b	/b/
ت	Т т	T t	/t/
تُ	Тв тв	Tv tv	/tʷ/
ج	Ж ж	Ƶ ƶ	/ʒ/
جُ	Жв жв	Ƶv ƶv	/ʒʷ/
ڃ	ЧӀ чӀ	Ç ç	/t͡ʃʼ/
ڃُ	ЧӀв чӀв	Çv çv	/t͡ʃʷʼ/
‌ ڃّ	ЧӀчӀ чӀчӀ	Çç çç	/t͡ʃʼː/
‌ ڃُّ	ЧӀчӀв чӀчӀв	Ççv ççv	/t͡ʃʷʼː/
چ	Ч ч	C c	/t͡ʃ/
چُ	Чв чв	Cv cv	/t͡ʃʷ/
چّ	Чч чч	Cc cc	/t͡ʃː/
چُّ	Ччв ччв	Ccv ccv	/t͡ʃʷː/
ح	ХӀ хӀ	Ħ ħ	/ʜ/
حُ	ХӀв хӀв	Ħv ħv	/ʜʷ/
خ	Х х	X x	/χ/
خُ	Хв хв	Xv xv	/χʷ/
خّ	Хх хх	Xx xx	/χː/
خُّ	Ххв ххв	Xxv xxv	/χʷː/
څ	Хъ хъ	Ӿ ӿ	/q͡χː/
څُ	Хъв хъв	Ӿv ӿv	/q͡χʷː/
د	Д д	D d	/d/
دُ	Дв дв	Dv dv	/dʷ/
‌ ر	Р р	R r	/r/
‌ ز	З з	Z z	/z/
‌ زُ	Зв зв	Zv zv	/zʷ/
‌ س	С с	S s	/s/
‌ سُ	Св св	Sv sv	/sʷ/
‌ سّ	Сс сс	Ss ss	/sː/
‌ سُّ	Ссв ссв	Ssv ssv	/sʷː/
ش	Ш ш	Ş ş	/ʃ/
شُ	Шв шв	Şv şv	/ʃʷ/
شّ	Щ щ	Şş şş	/ʃː/
شُّ	Щв щв	Şşv şşv	/ʃʷː/
ص	Ц ц	Ꞩ ꞩ	/t͡s/
صّ	Цц цц	Ꞩꞩ ꞩꞩ	/t͡sː/
ض	ЦӀ цӀ	Ⱬ ⱬ	/t͡sʼ/
ضُ	ЦӀв цӀв	Ⱬv ⱬv	/t͡sʷʼ/
ضّ	ЦӀцӀ цӀцӀ	Ⱬⱬ ⱬⱬ	/t͡sʼː/
ضُّ	ЦӀцӀв цӀцӀв	Ⱬⱬv ⱬⱬv	/t͡sʷʼː/
ط	ТӀ тӀ	Ţ ţ	/tʼ/
طُ	ТӀв тӀв	Ţv ţv	/tʷʼ/
‌ ع	ГӀ гӀ	Ⱨ ⱨ	/ʕ/
غ	Гъ Гъ	Ƣ ƣ	/ʁ/
غُ	Гъв Гъв	Ƣv ƣv	/ʁʷ/
ف	П п	P p	/p/
ف	Ф ф	F f	/f/
ڣ	ПӀ пӀ	P p	/pʼ/
ق	Къ къ	Q q	/q͡χʼː/
قُ	Къв къв	Qv qv	/q͡χʷʼː/
ڨ	Кь кь	Ꝗ ꝗ	/t͡ɬʼː/
ڨُ	Кьв кьв	Ꝗv ꝗv	/t͡ɬʷʼː/
ك	К к	K k	/k/
كُ	Кв кв	Kv kv	/kʷ/
كّ	Кк кк	Kk kk	/kː/
كُّ	Ккв ккв	Kkv kkv	/kʷː/
گ	КӀ кӀ	Ⱪ ⱪ	/kʼ/
گُ	КӀв кӀв	Ⱪv ⱪv	/kʷʼ/
گّ	КӀкӀ кӀкӀ	Ⱪⱪ ⱪⱪ	/kʼː/
گُّ	КӀкӀв кӀкӀв	Ⱪⱪv ⱪⱪv	/kʷʼː/
ڬ	Г г	G g	/ɡ/
ڬُ	Гв гв	Gv gv	/ɡʷ/
ڮ	Хь хь	Ҳ ҳ	/x/
ڮُ	Хьв хьв	Ҳv ҳv	/xʷ/
ڮّ	Хьхь хьхь	Ҳҳ ҳҳ	/xː/
ل	Л л	L l	/l/
ڸ	Лъ лъ	Ļ ļ	/t͡ɬ/
ڸُ	Лъв лъв	Ļv ļv	/t͡ɬʷ/
ڸّ	Лълъ лълъ	Ļļ ļļ	/t͡ɬː/
ڸُّ	Лълъв лълъв	Ļļv ļļv	/t͡ɬʷː/
م	М м	M m	/m/
ن	Н н	N n	/n/
و	В в	V v	/w/
ئۈ، ۈ	О о	O o	/o/
ئۇ، ۇ	У у	U u	/u/
ﻫُ	Гьв гьв	Hv hv	/ɦʷ/
ﻫ	Гь гь	H h	/ɦ/
ئې، ې	Э э	E e	/e/
ئې، ې، يې	Е е	E e, Je je	/e/, /je/
ئێ، ێ	И и	I i	/i/
ئێ، ێ	Ы ы	Y y	/ɨ/
ي	Й й	J j	/j/
ي	Ь ь	J j	/ʲ/
يا	Я я	Ja ja	/ja/
يۈ	Ё ё	Jo, jo	/jo/
يۇ	Ю ю	Ju ju	/ju/
ئ	Ъ ъ	’	/ʔ/
ئُ	Ъв ъв	’v	/ʔʷ/

As an example, in Avar Arabic Script, four varieties of the letter yāʼ have been developed, each with a distinct function.

Arabic	Cyrillic	IPA	Function
	- / ъ	/ʔ/	Used at the beginning of words starting with vowels "О о", "У у", "Э э", and "И и" . Has no sound of its own, but acts as "vowel carrier". Similar to writing conventions of Uyghyr and Kurdish
	Э э / Е е	/e/	Similar letter exists in Pashto, Uzbek, and Uyghyr orthographies.
	И и / Ы ы	/i~ɨ/	Similar letter exists in Kurdish orthography, but for the vowel .
	Й й	/j/	Equivalent to English "y" sound.

Nevertheless, Avar Arabic script does retain two diacritics.
First is "shadda", used for gemination. While in Cyrillic, two back to back letters, including digraphs are written, in Arabic script, shadda is used.
Second diacritic in use in Avar Arabic script is ḍammah. In Arabic, Persian, and historically in Ottoman Turkish, this diacritic is used to represent or . But in Avar, this diacritic is used for labialization and not for any sort of vowel. So, it is the case that this diacritic is used in conjunction with a follow-up vowel. For example, the sound "зва" is written as "زُا".
This diacritic can optionally be used in conjunction with shadda. For example, the sound "ссвa" is written as "سُّا".
If a word starts with a vowel, if it's an sound, it is written with alif "ا". Otherwise, the vowel needs to be preceded by a "vowel carrier", which is hamza-ya'. No need for such a carrier in the middle of words. Below table demonstrates vowels in Avar Arabic Script.

Literature

The literary language is based on the болмацӏ —bo and maⱬ —the common language used between speakers of different dialects and languages. The bolmaⱬ in turn was mainly derived from the dialect of Khunzakh, the capital and cultural centre of the Avar region, with some influence from the southern dialects. Nowadays the literary language is influencing the dialects, levelling out their differences.
The most famous figure of modern Avar literature is Rasul Gamzatov, the People's Poet of Dagestan. Translations of his works into Russian have gained him a wide audience all over the former Soviet Union.