Adposition


Adpositions are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations or mark various semantic roles. The most common adpositions are prepositions and postpositions.
An adposition typically combines with a noun phrase, this being called its complement, or sometimes object. English generally has prepositions rather than postpositions – words such as in, under and of precede their objects, such as "in England", "under the table", "of Jane" – although there are a few exceptions including ago and notwithstanding, as in "three days ago" and "financial limitations notwithstanding". Some languages that use a different word order have postpositions instead or have both types. The phrase formed by an adposition together with its complement is called an adpositional phrase. Such a phrase can function as a grammatical modifier or complement in a wide range of types of phrases.
A less common type of adposition is the circumposition, which consists of two parts that appear on each side of the complement. Other terms sometimes used for particular types of adposition include ambiposition, inposition and interposition. Some linguists use the word preposition in place of adposition regardless of the applicable word order.

Terminology

The word preposition comes from prefix and . This refers to the situation in Latin and Greek, where such words are placed before their complement, and are hence "pre-positioned".
In some languages, including Sindhi, Hindustani, Turkish, Hungarian, Korean, and Japanese, the same kinds of words typically come after their complement. To indicate this, they are called postpositions. There are also some cases where the function is performed by two parts coming before and after the complement; this is called a circumposition.
In some languages, for example Finnish, some adpositions can be used as both prepositions and postpositions.
Prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions are collectively known as adpositions. However, some linguists prefer to use the well-known and longer-established term preposition in place of adposition, irrespective of position relative to the complement.

Grammatical properties

An adposition typically combines with exactly one complement, most often a noun phrase. In English, this is generally a noun, together with its specifier and modifiers such as articles, adjectives, etc. The complement is sometimes called the object of the adposition. The resulting phrase, formed by the adposition together with its complement, is called an adpositional phrase or prepositional phrase .
An adposition establishes a grammatical relationship that links its complement to another word or phrase in the context. It also generally establishes a semantic relationship, which may be spatial, temporal, or of some other type. The World Atlas of Language Structures treats a word as an adposition if it takes a noun phrase as a complement and indicates the grammatical or semantic relationship of that phrase to the verb in the containing clause.
Some examples of the use of English prepositions are given [|below]. In each case, the prepositional phrase appears in italics, the preposition within it appears in bold, and the preposition's complement is underlined. As demonstrated in some of the examples, more than one prepositional phrase may act as an adjunct to the same word.
  • As an adjunct to a noun:
  • * the weather in March
  • * cheese from France with live bacteria
  • As a predicative expression
  • * The key is under the stone.
  • As an adjunct to a verb:
  • * sleep throughout the winter
  • * danced atop the tables for hours
  • * dispense with the formalities
  • As an adjunct to an adjective:
  • * happy for them
  • * sick until recently
In the last of these examples the complement has the form of an adverb, which has been nominalised to serve as a noun phrase; see Different forms of complement, below. Prepositional phrases themselves are sometimes nominalized:In the cellar was chosen as the best place to store the wine.
An adposition may determine the grammatical case of its complement. In English, the complements of prepositions take the objective case where available. In Koine Greek, for example, certain prepositions always take their objects in a certain case, while other prepositions may take their object in one of two or more cases, depending on the meaning of the preposition. Some languages have cases that are used exclusively after prepositions, or special forms of pronouns for use after prepositions.
The functions of adpositions overlap with those of case markings, but adpositions are classed as syntactic elements, while case markings are morphological.
Adpositions themselves are usually non-inflecting : they do not have paradigms of the form the same way that verbs, adjectives, and nouns can. There are exceptions, though, such as prepositions that have fused with a pronominal object to form inflected prepositions.
The following properties are characteristic of most adpositional systems:
  • Adpositions are among the most frequently occurring words in languages that have them. For example, one frequency ranking for English word forms begins as follows :
  • The most common adpositions are single, monomorphemic words. According to the ranking cited [|above], for example, the most common English prepositions are on, in, to, by, for, with, at, of, from, as, all of which are single-syllable words and cannot be broken down into smaller units of meaning.
  • Adpositions form a closed class of lexical items and cannot be productively derived from words of other categories.

Classification of adpositions

As noted above, adpositions are referred to by various terms, depending on their position relative to the complement.
While the term preposition sometimes denotes any adposition, its stricter meaning refers only to one that precedes its complement. Examples of this, from English, have been given above; similar examples can be found in many European and other languages, for example:
In certain grammatical constructions, the complement of a preposition may be absent or may be moved from its position directly following the preposition. This may be referred to as preposition stranding, as in "Whom did you go with?" and "There's only one thing worse than being talked about." There are also some expressions in which a preposition's complement may be omitted, such as "I'm going to the park. Do you want to come with ?", and the French Il fait trop froid, je ne suis pas habillée pour
The bolded words in these examples are generally still considered prepositions because when they form a phrase with a complement they must appear first.
A postposition follows its complement to form a postpositional phrase. Examples include:
  • Latin: mecum
  • Turkish: benimle or benim ile
  • Hungarian: fa alatt
  • Chinese: 桌子上' ''zhuōzi shàng ; this is a nominal form, which usually requires an additional preposition to form an adverbial phrase
  • English: ten kilometers away, ten months ago
Some adpositions can appear either before or after their complement:
  • English: the evidence notwithstanding OR notwithstanding the evidence
  • German: meiner Meinung nach OR nach meiner Meinung
  • German: die Straße entlang OR entlang der Straße
An adposition like the above, which can be either a preposition or a postposition, can be called an ambiposition. However, ambiposition may also be used to refer to a circumposition, or to a word that appears to function as a preposition and postposition simultaneously, as in the Vedic Sanskrit construction ā, meaning "from to ".
Whether a language has primarily prepositions or postpositions is seen as an aspect of its typological classification, and tends to correlate with other properties related to head directionality. Since an adposition is regarded as the head of its phrase, prepositional phrases are head-initial, while postpositional phrases are head-final. There is a tendency for languages that feature postpositions also to have other head-final features, such as verbs that follow their objects; and for languages that feature prepositions to have other head-initial features, such as verbs that precede their objects. This is only a tendency, however; an example of a language that behaves differently is Latin, which employs mostly prepositions, even though it typically places verbs after their objects.
A circumposition consists of two or more parts, positioned on both sides of the complement. Circumpositions are very common in Pashto and Kurdish. The following are examples from Northern Kurdish :bi... re di... de di... re ji... re ji... ve
Various constructions in other languages might also be analyzed as circumpositional, for example:
  • English: from now on
  • Dutch: naar het einde toe
  • Chinese: 从'冰箱里 cóng bīngxiāng lǐ
  • French: à un détail près
  • Swedish: för tre timmar sedan
  • German: aus dem Zimmer heraus
  • Tigrinya: ካብ ሕጂ 'ንደሓር
Most such phrases, however, can be analyzed as having a different hierarchical structure. The Chinese example could be analyzed as a prepositional phrase headed by cóng, taking the locative noun phrase bīngxīang lǐ as its complement.
An inposition is a rare type of adposition that appears between parts of a [|complex] complement. For example, in the native Californian Timbisha language, the phrase "from a mean cold" can be translated using the word order "cold from mean"—the inposition follows the noun but precedes any following modifiers that form part of the same noun phrase. The Latin word cum is also commonly used as an inposition, as in the phrase summa cum laude, meaning "with highest praise", lit. "highest with praise".
The term interposition has been used for adpositions in structures such as word for word, French coup sur coup'', and Russian друг с другом. This is not a case of an adposition appearing inside its complement, as the two nouns do not form a single phrase ; such uses have more of a coordinating character.

Stranding

Preposition stranding is a syntactic construct in which a preposition occurs somewhere other than immediately before its complement. For example, in the English sentence "What did you sit on?" the preposition on has what as its complement, but what is moved to the start of the sentence, because it is an interrogative word. This sentence is much more common and natural than the equivalent sentence without stranding: "On what did you sit?" Preposition stranding is commonly found in English, as well as North Germanic languages such as Swedish. Its existence in German is debated. Preposition stranding is also found in some Niger–Congo languages such as Vata and Gbadi, and in some North American varieties of French.
Some prescriptive English grammars teach that prepositions cannot end a sentence, although there is no rule prohibiting that use. Similar rules arose during the rise of classicism, when they were applied to English in imitation of classical languages such as Latin. Otto Jespersen, in his Essentials of English Grammar, commented on this definition-derived rule: "...nor need a preposition stand before the word it governs. You might just as well believe that all blackguards are black or that turkeys come from Turkey; many names have either been chosen unfortunately at first or have changed their meanings in the course of time."

Simple versus complex

Simple adpositions consist of a single word. Complex adpositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Examples of complex prepositions in English include in spite of, with respect to, except for, by dint of, and next to.
The distinction between simple and complex adpositions is not clear-cut. Many complex adpositions are derived from simple forms through grammaticalisation. This change takes time, and during the transitional stages, the adposition acts in some ways like a single word, and in other ways like a multi-word unit. For example, current German orthographic conventions recognize the indeterminate status of certain prepositions, allowing two spellings: anstelle/''an Stelle, aufgrund/auf Grund, mithilfe/mit Hilfe, zugunsten/zu Gunsten, zuungunsten/zu Ungunsten, zulasten/zu Lasten.
The distinction between complex adpositions and free combinations of words is not a black-and-white issue: complex adpositions can be more fossilized or less fossilized. In English, this applies to a number of structures of the form "preposition + + noun + preposition", such as in front of, for the sake of. The following characteristics are good indications that a given combination is "frozen" enough to be considered a complex preposition in English:
  • It contains a word that cannot be used in any other context: by dint of, in lieu of.
  • The first preposition cannot be replaced: with a view to but not *for/without a view to.
  • It is impossible to insert an article, or to use a different article: on account of but not *on an/the account of; for the sake of but not *for a sake of.
  • The range of possible adjectives is very limited: in great favor of, but not *in helpful favor of.
  • The grammatical number of the noun cannot be changed: by virtue of but not *by virtues of.
  • It is impossible to use a possessive determiner: in spite of him, not *in his spite''.

Marginal prepositions

Marginal prepositions are prepositions that have affinities with other word classes, most notably participles. Marginal prepositions behave like prepositions but derive from other parts of speech. Some marginal prepositions in English include barring, concerning, considering, excluding, failing, following, including, notwithstanding, regarding, and respecting.

Proper ''versus'' improper

In descriptions of some languages, prepositions are divided into proper and improper. A preposition is called improper if it is some other part of speech being used in the same way as a preposition. Examples of simple and complex prepositions that have been so classified include prima di and davanti in Italian, and ergo and causa in Latin. In reference to Ancient Greek, however, an improper preposition is one that cannot also serve as a prefix to a verb.

Different forms of complement

As noted above, adpositions typically have noun phrases as complements. This can include nominal clauses and certain types of non-finite verb phrase:
  • We can't agree on whether to have children or not
  • Let's think about solving this problem
  • pour encourager les autres
The word to when it precedes the infinitive in English is not a preposition, but rather is a grammatical particle outside of any main word class.
In other cases, the complement may have the form of an adjective or adjective phrase, or an adverbial. This may be regarded as a complement representing a different syntactic category, or simply as an atypical form of noun phrase.
  • The scene went from blindingly bright to pitch black
  • I worked there until recently
  • Come out from under the bed
In the last example, the complement of the preposition from is in fact another prepositional phrase. The resulting sequence of two prepositions may be regarded as a complex preposition; in some languages, such a sequence may be represented by a single word, as Russian из-под iz-pod.
Some adpositions appear to combine with two complements:With Sammy president, we can all come out of hiding again.For Sammy to become president, they'd have to seriously modify the Constitution.
It is more commonly assumed, however, that Sammy and the following predicate forms a small clause, which then becomes the single complement of the preposition.

Semantic functions

Adpositions can be used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their complement and the rest of the context. The relations expressed may be spatial, temporal, or relations expressing comparison, content, agent, instrument, means, manner, cause, purpose, reference, etc.
Most common adpositions are highly polysemous. In many cases, a primary, spatial meaning becomes extended to non-spatial uses by metaphorical or other processes. Because of the variety of meanings, a single adposition often has many possible equivalents in another language, depending on the exact context. This can cause difficulties in foreign language learning. Usage can also vary between dialects of the same language.
In some contexts the choice of adposition may be determined by another element in the construction or be fixed by the construction as a whole. Here the adposition may have little independent semantic content of its own, and there may be no clear reason why the particular adposition is used rather than another. Examples of such expressions are:
  • English: dispense with, listen to, insist on, proud of, good at
  • Russian: otvechat' na vopros, obvinenie v obmane
  • Spanish: soñar con ganar el título, consistir en dos grupos
Prepositions sometimes mark roles that may be considered largely grammatical:
  • possession – the pen of my aunt
  • the agent in passive constructions – killed by a lone gunman
  • the recipient of a transfer – give it to him
Spatial meanings of adpositions may be either directional or static. A directional meaning usually involves motion in a particular direction, the direction in which something leads or points, or the extent of something. A static meaning indicates only a location. Some prepositions can have both uses: "he sat in the water" ; "he jumped in the water". In some languages, the case of the complement varies depending on the meaning, as with several prepositions in German, such as in:in seinem Zimmer in sein Zimmer
In English and many other languages, prepositional phrases with static meaning are commonly used as predicative expressions after a copula ; this may happen with some directional prepositions as well, but this is less common. Directional prepositional phrases combine mostly with verbs that indicate movement.
Directional meanings can be further divided into telic and atelic. Telic prepositional phrases imply movement all the way to the endpoint, while atelic ones do not.
Static meanings can be divided into projective and non-projective, where projective meanings are those whose understanding requires knowledge of the perspective or point of view. For example, the meaning of "behind the rock" is likely to depend on the position of the speaker, whereas the meaning of "on the desk" is not. Sometimes the interpretation is ambiguous, as in "behind the house," which may mean either at the natural back of the house or on the opposite side of the house from the speaker.

Inflected adpositions

Some languages feature inflected adpositions—adpositions marked for grammatical person and/or grammatical number to give meanings such as "on me," "from you," etc. In the Indo-European languages this phenomenon is mostly confined to the Celtic languages like Welsh and Irish. Polish also allows some degree of combining prepositions with pronouns in the third person.

Celtic

The majority of Welsh prepositions can be inflected. This is achieved by having a preposition such as o + a linking element; in the case of o this is -hon- + the assimilated pronoun element, resulting in ohon- being the preposition's "stem" form. It is common in speech for the pronoun to be present after the preposition, but it can be omitted. Unless used with a pronoun the form is always o and not the "stem", e.g. dw i'n dod o Gymru –, gormod o gwrw –.
The following table gives the inflected forms of the preposition o. The optional pronouns that follow the inflected forms are given in parentheses.
Cymerodd ef hi ohonof –.

Semitic

Inflected prepositions are found in Semitic languages, including Hebrew, Arabic, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Amharic.
For example, the Arabic preposition على inflects as علَيَّ, علَيْكَ), علَيْهِ, etc.

Other languages

Some Iranic languages, including Persian, have developed inflected prepositions. For example, Persian becomes ; becomes.
In Iberian Romance languages such as Spanish and Portuguese, the preposition con or com has special forms incorporating certain pronouns. For example, in Spanish and Asturian conmigo means. Historically, this developed from the Latin use of cum after a pronoun, as in mecum.
Bororo, an indigenous language of Brazil, uses postpositions in all contexts: tori ji. When these modify a pronoun rather than a full noun, the phrase contracts into an inflected postposition.

Overlaps with other categories

Adverbs and particles

There are often similarities in form between adpositions and adverbs. Some adverbs are derived from the fusion of a preposition and its complement stairs, and underground, from under. Some words can function both as adverbs and as prepositions, such as inside, aboard, underneath. Such cases are analogous to verbs that can be used either transitively or intransitively, and the adverbial forms might therefore be analyzed as "intransitive prepositions". This analysis could also be extended to other adverbs, such as here, there, afterward, etc., even though these never take complements.
Many English phrasal verbs contain particles that are used adverbially, even though they mostly have the form of a preposition. Examples are on in carry on, get on, etc., and over in take over, fall over, and so on. The equivalents in Dutch and German are separable prefixes, which also often have the same form as prepositions: for example, Dutch aanbieden and German anbieten contain the separable prefix aan/an, which is also a preposition meaning "on" or "to".

Conjunctions

Some words can be used both as adpositions and as subordinating conjunctions:before/after/since the end of the summerbefore/'after/since the summer endedIt looks like another rainy dayIt looks like' it's going to rain again today
It would be possible to analyze such conjunctions as prepositions that take an entire clause as a complement.

Verbs

In some languages, including a number of Chinese varieties, many of the words that serve as prepositions can also be used as verbs. For instance, in Standard Chinese, 到 dào can be used in either a prepositional or a verbal sense:
  • 我到北京去 wǒ dào Běijīng qù
  • 我到了 wǒ dào le
Because of this overlap, and the fact that a sequence of prepositional phrases and verb phrases often resembles a serial verb construction, Chinese prepositions are often referred to as coverbs.
As noted in previous sections, Chinese can also be said to have postpositions, although these can be analyzed as nominal elements. For more information, see the article on Chinese grammar, particularly the sections on coverbs and locative phrases.

Case affixes

Some grammatical case markings have a similar function to adpositions; a case affix in one language may be equivalent in meaning to a preposition or postposition in another. For example, in English, the agent of a passive construction is marked by the preposition by, while in Russian it is marked by the use of the instrumental case. Sometimes such equivalences exist within a single language; for example, the genitive case in German is often interchangeable with a phrase using the preposition von.
Adpositions combine syntactically with their complement, whereas case markings combine with a noun morphologically. In some instances it may not be clear which applies; the following are some possible means of making such a distinction:
  • Two adpositions can usually be joined with a coordinating conjunction and share a single complement, whereas this is generally not possible with case affixes;
  • One adposition can usually combine with two coordinated complements, whereas a case affix would need to be repeated with each noun ;
  • Case markings combine primarily with nouns, whereas adpositions can combine with phrases of different categories;
  • A case marking usually appears directly on the noun, but an adposition can be separated from the noun by other words;
  • Within the noun phrase, determiners and adjectives may agree with the noun in case, but an adposition only appears once;
  • A language can have hundreds of adpositions, but no language has that many distinct morphological cases.
Even so, a clear distinction cannot always be made. For example, the post-nominal elements in Japanese and Korean are sometimes called case particles and sometimes postpositions. Sometimes they are analyzed as two different groups because they have different characteristics, but in such analysis, it is unclear which words should fall into which group.
Turkish, Finnish and Hungarian have both extensive case-marking and postpositions, but there is evidence to help distinguish the two:
  • Turkish: sinemaya vs. sinema için
  • Finnish: talossa vs. talon edessä
  • Hungarian: tetőn vs. tető alatt
In these examples, the case markings form a word with their hosts, while the postpositions are independent words. As is seen in the last example, adpositions are often used in conjunction with case affixes – in languages that have a case, a given adposition usually takes a complement in a particular case, and sometimes the choice of the case helps specify the meaning of the adposition.