Philippine comics
Philippine comic books is widely popular throughout the nation from the early-20th-century to the present. Comics scholar John A. Lent posited that the Philippine comics tradition has "the strongest audience appeal, best-known cartooning geniuses, and most varied comics content" in Asia after Japan and Hong Kong.
The origins of Philippine comic strips trace back to the early 20th century, and Comic books gained widespread readership after World War II. These early comics were deeply rooted in Western styles and formats, yet they possessed a distinctive character as melodramas enjoyed by both children and adults. Marked by ornate, baroque illustrations drawn in thick lines, Philippine comics peaked in popularity as a national pastime during the 1980s. They also served as source material for movies, as well as for promoting government initiatives, especially for propaganda and satirical cartoons. However, by the end of the 20th century, public interest began to wane, with alternative forms of entertainment such as television and the Internet taking precedence, leading to the decline of nationally distributed comic books. Subsequently, self-publishing and independent publishers flourished, and comics communities formed through conventions. The emergence of webcomics provided a new avenue for publishing works.
History
Origin: 19th century–World War II
Some believe that the origin of indigenous Philippine cartoons can be traced back to the independence activist José Rizal. Rizal privately created several picture stories, with one notable example being his 1885 illustrated rendition of the Filipino folktale The Turtle and the Monkey, which featured a combination of words and pictures akin to modern cartoons.As in many countries, commercial cartooning in the Philippines originated with single-panel political cartoons in satirical periodicals. Magazines and newspapers such as Te con Leche and El Tio Verdades during the Spanish colonial period, followed by Lipang Kalabaw and the Philippines Free Press under the American rule, extensively criticized both the colonial powers and the local government through cartoons. Early political cartoons personified the nation as "Filipinas", a naive maiden courted by Uncle Sam, who later was replaced by Juan dela Cruz, a slipper-wearing common man introduced by Jorge Pineda in The Independent. Noteworthy painters of this era, such as Fernando Amorsolo and Botong Francisco, were also known for their cartooning.
The weekly Liwayway, the first literary magazine in the Philippines, introduced its first comic strip in 1929. Titled Mga Kabalbalan ni Kenkoy, the strip was centered around Kenkoy, a Filipino trying to imitate Americans. This notable character was created by writer Romualdo Ramos and by illustrator Tony Velasquez, who was 18 years old at the time, by commission from publisher. The short comic swiftly expanded to occupy a full-color page, then advanced into the magazine's various language editions. The moniker "Kenkoy" was ingrained into the Filipino vernacular as a term meaning "someone who is boisterously hilarious, funny or amusing", and the character persisted in comics and visual media well into the 21st century. Velasquez has come to be called "father of Filipino comics," partly due to his role as a publisher in later years, providing numerous creators with a platform to publish their works.
During the 1930s, Filipino comics heavily mirrored American comic strips. José Zabala-Santos was renowned for his Popeye-inspired creations, Lukas Marakas and Popoy. The first adventure comic, Francisco Reyes' Kulafu, featured a Tarzan-esque hero in the jungles of Luzon during the pre-Spanish era. Amidst the pressures of westernization, such pseudo-historical adventures continued to captivate audiences in the Philippines.
During the Pacific War, Manila fell under Japanese military control in January 1942. Japanese military authorities enforced a ban on local newspapers, while utilizing Roces family-owned publications such as Liwayway and The Tribune for propaganda. American comic strips including The Lone Ranger and Fritzi Ritz, which had been serialized in The Tribune, were replaced by The Boy 'Pilipino' by Japanese cartoonist and The KALIBAPI Family by Tony Velasquez. These works, subject to censorship by the Japanese Propaganda Corps, promoted assimilation programs such as Japanese language education and suggested ways to address shortages in supplies.
Golden age: 1940s–1950s
, Filipino publishers began to adopt the format of American comic books, influenced by the abundance of comics in American soldiers' garrisons. Unlike the single-story format common in the U.S., these Filipino periodicals were typically anthologies ranging from 36 to 45 pages. Leading this trend was Halakhak Komiks, a short-lived weekly publication launched by Tony Velasquez in 1946. Subsequently, in 1947, Ramon Roces established Ace Publications, appointing Velasquez as editor-in-chief. Ace introduced Pilipino Komiks, and several others including Tagalog Klasiks, Hiwaga Komiks, and Espcsyal Komiks. As these bi-weekly magazines became popular, they evolved into weekly and then semiweekly publications. Initial circulation began at 10,000 copies, eventually exceeding 100,000. By 1950, other publishers entered the industry, and general magazines began devoting special issues to comics. Additionally, translated U.S. comics became increasingly common. While many of these publishers faced various challenges and industry fluctuations, Roces and his family would remain a dominant figure in the comic book industry for decades.Filipino comics experienced a golden age during the 1950s, as affordable comic books became widely available at street newsstands and general stores, gradually supplanting literary magazines. While American titles like Superman, Archie, and MAD, sold in supermarkets and bookstores, were primarily consumed by the middle classes, homegrown comics were embraced by the common people. Most creators did not hail from the intellectual elite either. Due to the shared pool of writers, Filipino comics inherited the characteristic of didactic melodrama from popular literatures. Initially serving as a means of escapism from reality, comics evolved over time, with stories growing more sophisticated and diverse genres emerging through the 1980s.
From their inception, comics faced criticism from conservative and religious groups due to perceived lowbrow content. In 1954, following the establishment of the Comics Code in the U.S. comics industry, the Association of Publishers and Editors of Philippine Comics-Magazines was formed, spearheaded by Ace. Collaborating with the Catholic Church, APEPCOM implemented a self-regulatory code aimed at excluding "filth harmful to morals," such as explicit sex, horror, and criminal activities, from their works. Consequently, Filipino comics would persist in avoiding offensive or vulgar humor until the 21st century, predominantly focusing on simple humor and political satire.
During this era, many artists emerged who would shape the history of Philippine comics. Francisco Coching, a World War II guerrilla fighter, established the indigenous style of Philippine comics with his dynamic and intricate drawings. Nicknamed "the Dean of Philippine comics," Coching was posthumously honored with a National Artist award. Larry Alcala left a lasting legacy with his 56-year career, notably through his Slice of Life, a single-panel comic strip series portraying daily life in the Philippines without dialogue. Alcala was also bestowed with the title of National Artist. Mars Ravelo introduced the iconic Filipino superhero, Darna. Ravelo's other creations, such as Captain Barbell, Lastikman, the mermaid Dyesebel, and the humorous character Bondying, have seen remakes in the 21st century, captivating a new generation of readers. Other notable figures include Alfredo Alcala, Clodualdo del Mundo, Nestor Redondo, Alex Niño, Pablo S. Gomez, and Jesse Santos.
Regulation under the dictatorship, outflow of talent to the U.S.: 1960s–1970s
When the Ace Publication went bankrupt in 1963 following a printers' strike, creators who had contributed the company ventured into their own business endeavors. Velasquez managed GASI with Roces' support. Pablo Gomez and Mars Ravelo established their respective publishing houses PSG and RAR releasing several weekly titles. However, many new entrants into the comic book industry often faced instability, partly due to the sluggish Philippine economy. Larry Alcala reflected on this period, noting that overproduction led to a decline in quality, marking the end of the golden age.The "bomba" and "developmental comics" are genres unique to the Philippines that emerged in the 1960s. Bomba comics, published by ephemeral publishers, featured pornographic stories, nude photos, and occasional political messages. Despite facing condemnation from religious and feminist groups, bomba magazines remained popular until they were forced underground following intensified enforcement measures during martial law from 1972 onwards. Developmental comics, published by public agencies, aimed to raise awareness about family planning and were reported for their impact on population control. Comics were also utilized as a tool for government public relations. During the presidency of Corazon Aquino in the late 1980s, comics were used to disseminate messages urging communist guerrillas to surrender, camouflaged as romance stories, and distributed nationwide.
In the 1970s, Filipino artists began penetrating the U.S. market, pioneered by Tony DeZuniga, a Filipino immigrant based in New York. Recruited by DC Comics editor Joe Orlando in 1970, DeZuniga would create the western hero Jonah Hex and contribute to Conan the Barbarian, as well as various romance, horror, and war titles. In 1971, DeZuniga recommended DC publisher Carmine Infantino to visit the Philippines to scout for new talent at moderate rates. This initiative resulted in a significant outflux of Filipino artists, including Alex Niño, Nestor Redondo and Alfredo Alcala. Renowned for their drawing proficiency, speed, and diverse artistic range, Filipino artists became a major presence in American comics. However, as reader preferences shifted in the 1980s, many Filipino artists transitioned to alternative career paths, such as animation.
In 1972, Ferdinand Marcos' administration imposed martial law, forcing all publishers to align with a pro-regime stance. The administration recognized the significant influence of comics on public opinion and published comics to promote its policies, while establishing The Media Advisory Council to regulate the content of comics. The comics industry complied, leading to a disappearance of works depicting poverty or social unrest from their pages. Although the Philippines had previously enjoyed an exceptional level of freedom for political satire among Southeast Asian countries, political cartoonists critical of the government began to be ostracized. Newspaper and magazines under Marcos' influence carried humorous cartoons devoid of political commentary, fostering a flourishing of the genre. Nonoy Marcelo, among those blacklisted, evaded censorship by joining the state-run media agency, and infused subtle political satire into his cartoons featuring his rat character Ikabod. Eventually Marcos was overthrown in 1986, yet satirical cartoons did not regain their former prominence, as media conglomerates increasingly excluded content deemed detrimental to business interests.
The 1970s presented multiple challenges for the Philippine comics industry. Alongside losing talent to the higher-paying American counterpart, the industry faced criticism from the administration and the Catholic Church regarding perceived 'harmful' content, not to mention economic recession. While several weaker publishers succumbed to these pressures, companies such as GASI and Atlas, owned by Ramon Roces, continued to thrive. GASI's circulation and revenues quadrupled between 1975 and 1978.