Monreale Cathedral mosaics

The Monreale Cathedral 'Mosaics' are the main internal feature of Monreale Cathedral in the city of Palermo, Sicily, Italy; the mosaics cover 6,500 m². It was constructed at the orders of King William II and later was beatified to the Assumption of the Virgin. The mosaics are made up of glass tesserae in the Byzantine style. The Byzantine style was spread to areas of Italy due to trade and conquest. Recently, there has been an increase in research conducted on the Monreale Cathedral mosaics, to attempt to reveal methods by which they produced the mosaics after the 12th century.

History

The Monreale Cathedral was ordered to be constructed by King William II. The cathedral was then erected in a royal park on the site of an earlier Greek church. However, work on the structure as well as its decoration was, for the most part, completed following the death of the king in 1189. The cathedral was then later consecrated to the Assumption of the Virgin.

Description

The mosaics are made of glass tesserae and were executed in Byzantine style between the late 12th and the mid-13th centuries by local masters. With the exception of a high dado, made of marble slabs with bands of mosaic between them, the whole interior surface of the walls, including soffits and jambs of all the arches, is covered with minute mosaic-pictures in bright colors on a gold ground. The mosaic pictures, depicting stories from both the Old and New Testament, are arranged in tiers, divided by horizontal and vertical bands. In parts of the choir there are five of these tiers of subjects or single figures one above another.
The interior of the Monreale Cathedral is home to a plethora of religious mosaics. The interior is extremely vast and has a multitude of opulent decoration. Amongst the mosaics are also antique columns, marble paneling along the lower sections of the walls, and an elaborate floor in the sanctuary. The mosaics, which covering the upper sections of the sanctuary and nave walls, span approximately 6,500 square meters, as mentioned prior. This expansive array of mosaics makes the Monreale Cathedral home to Italy's most extensive mosaic decoration, which surpasses that of Venice's San Marco.

The Byzantine style

The Byzantine style describes art that was produced by the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Ages. Byzantine art manifested in a variety of mediums, including painting, architecture, mosaics, metalwork, and ivory reliefs; however it is widely recognized for its use of opulent gold icons that continue to decorate many churches to this day.

The spread of Byzantine art

Byzantium constituted the eastern branch of the Roman Empire, which at one point, encompassed extensive territories across the Mediterranean, including present-day Turkey, Southern Spain, and Italy. Orthodox Christianity was established as the centralized form of religion, thereby infusing art that was created with predominantly devotional themes.
During the reign of Emperor Justinian, spanning from 527 to 565, Constantinople was established as the epicenter of the empire. Justinian also then led the creation of the Hagia Sophia, while creating workshops dedicated to a plethora of art forms, including icon painting, ivory carving, etc. The Emperor pushed the dissemination of ideas and iconographic styles to Ravenna in Italy wherein the San Vitale church later came to epitomize the essence of the Byzantine era.
Byzantine style art was spread to areas of Italy and Sicily via trade as well as conquest. The Byzantine style and forms of art then existed in a modified form throughout the 12th century, later being influential forces on forming Italian Renaissance art. Byzantine forms of art also reached eastern European areas, Russia in particular, through the growth of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Upon reaching Russia, Byzantine art styles remained prevalent with regional modifications, throughout the 17th century.
The mosaics of the Cathedral of Monreale were influenced by the spread of Byzantine art throughout Southern Italy and Sicily. Many Byzantine artists remaining in Italy after the Islamic conquest of Sicily in 965, took part in decorating the interiors of many structures, including the many mosaics that reflect the Byzantine style of the artists. Later Sicilian kings of the Norman dynasty went on to build large cathedrals, the Cathedral of Monreale included, in the same Byzantine style that had been largely influencing the region during that time.

Characteristics

The Byzantine style also rejects more realistic forms found typical within classical Roman works, and instead portraying subjects in a flattened form. During the peak era of Byzantine style, it was also characterized by elongated figures, angular shapes and faces, defined edges, flattened hues, and is embellished with gold accents. This is evident in the Monreale Cathedral Mosaics with the image of Christ the Pantokrater, where he has a sharp and more pointed face and the work is filled with gold accents and surrounding background. The surrounding mosaics of other religious figures are similarly styled with Byzantine characteristics including the elongated figures and gold accents.

Icons

Icons, especially depicting Christ, the Virgin Mary, among other highly revered religious figures, were commonly favored in the Byzantine era. In the Byzantine style, holy figures were depicted in the front and stared directly at the viewer, which was believed to allow for communication and connection with the divine figure being depicted, giving the work a more intense devotional aspect. This choice in icons is reflected in the choice of depicting Christ Pantokrater in the dome of the cathedral in Monreale.

Subjects

The Monreale Cathedral Mosaics depict a number of well-known and renowned religious figures and iconography. There are also depictions of stories from the Bible represented within the many mosaic decorations of the Monreale Cathedral, including the journey of Noah's Ark along with the labour of Adam and Eve.
As shown in the first figure of the East apse, there is a prominent hand-figure of Christ Pantocrator, which exhibits a superior style when compared to other depicted figures. Christ is the largest figure compared to the other smallers figures below and surrounding the East Apse. Below, the next focal point is an image of an enthroned Madonna and Child, whom are flanked by archangels and apostles.
There are also enthroned images of the apostles, Saint Peter and Saint Paul, that are displayed on the apse culottes, where scenes from their lives decorate the nearby walls.
A comprehensive depiction of the life of Christ is shown across three levels upon the walls of the crossing as well as the Cathedral’s transepts. This mosaic narrative extends into the nave, where there are forty two scenes taken from the Genesis which are portrayed across two separate levels. Additionally, the side aisles feature mosaics that illustrate the miracles of Christ.
Inscriptions on each picture explain the subject or saint represented; these are in Latin, except for some few which are in Greek. The subjects in the nave begin with scenes from the Book of Genesis, illustrating the Old Testament types of Christ and His scheme of redemption, with figures of those who prophesied and prepared for His coming. Around the lower tier and the choir are subjects from the New Testament, chiefly representing Christ's miracles and suffering, with apostles, evangelists and other saints. The design, execution and choice of subjects all appear to be of Byzantine origin, the subjects being selected from the Menologion of Basil II drawn up by the emperor Basil II in the 10th century.

New chemical and mineralogical data

There is a lack of knowledge in regards to the raw materials as well as the type of technology utilized during the production of mosaics created after the twelfth century. Due to this lapse in knowledge and available information, an archaeometric investigation was executed, which worked to examine the materials that were used for the mosaic decoration of the South aisle wall of the Monreale Cathedral.
During this investigation, they examined pieces of fallen colored and gilded glass tesserae by combining the molecular technique of Raman spectroscopy, as well as an elemental technique which utilized a portable X-ray Fluorescence.

By location

Source:

Inner facade

Level	South side	Main door	North side
Medallions
Bifora level	Creation of Eve		Eve Presented to Adam
Side-roof level	Lot and the Two Angels	Saint Cassius and Saint Castus	Destruction of Sodom
Bifora level	Martyrdom of Saint Cassius and Saint Castus	Madonna and Child	Miracles of Saint Castrense

South side

Transept, Choir, Apse	Bifora	Nave	Pendentives	South wall
	Adam in the Earthly Paradise	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Hospitality of Abraham	Multiplication of the Loaves and Fishes
	Adam Introduced to the Earthly Paradise	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	The Three Angels Visit Abraham	Healing of Saint Peter's Mother-in-Law
	God Rests from Creation	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Building the Tower of Babel	Resurrection of Jairus' Daughter
	Creation of the Animals and Man	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Drunkenness of Noah	Healing of the Woman with an Issue of Blood
	Creation of the Fishes and Birds	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	God Sends the Rainbow to Noah	Resurrection of the Widow's Son
	Creation of the Stars	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	The Animals Leave the Ark	Saint Peter Saved from the Waves
	Creation of the Dry Land	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Noah's Flood	Healing of the Man with Arthiritis
	Separation of the Seas and the Dry Land	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	The Animals Enter the Ark	Healing of the Leper
	Creation of Light	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Noah Builds the Ark	Healing of the Demon-Possessed Man
	Creation of Heaven and Earth	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»
Medallion	Medallion	Triumphal Arch	Medallion	Figure
	Full-length figure	Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	Full-length figure	Full-length figure
Visitation / Flight into Egypt	Third Temptation of Christ	Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	The Disciples and the Donkey	Christ Before Pilate
Annunciation	Second Temptation of Christ	Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	Resurrection of Lazarus	Christ's Arrests
Zechariah Leaves the Temple		Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	Transfiguration
Annunciation to Zechariah / Joseph's Dream	First Temptation of Christ	Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	Christ and the Samaritan Woman	Christ Washes the Disciples' Feet
	Full-length figure	Transept: «Life of Christ Cycle»	Full-length figure	Full-length figure
Medallion	Medallion	Apse arch	Medallion	King William II Offers the Church to the Virgin Mary
Habbakuk	Obadiah, Joel	Choir side-walls	Saint Peter Meets Saint Paul	Fall of Simon Magus
Isaiah	Jeremiah, Amos	Choir side-walls	San Peter Resurrects Tabitha	Dispute with Simon Magus
Tetramorph and Cherubin	Gabriel, Uriel	Apse
Christ Pantocrator	Disciples	Apse	Saints

North wall

Transept, Choir, Apse	Bifora	Nave	Pendentives	North wall
	Eve Tempted by the Serpent	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	God Orders Abraham to Sacrifice Isaac	Healing of the Infirm Woman
	Original Sin	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Sacrifice of Isaac	Healing of the Man with Dropsy
	God Reproves Adam and Eve	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Rebecca Waters the Camels	Healing of the Ten Lepers
	Expulsion from the Earthly Paradise	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Rebecca's Journey	Healing of the Two Blind Men
	Labours of Adam and Eve	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Isaac and Esau	Christ Expels the Money-Changers from the Temple
	Sacrifices of Cain and Abel	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Isaac Blesses Jacob	The Woman Caught in Adultery
	Cain Kills Abel	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Jacob Flees	Healing of the Paralysed Man
	God Curses Cain	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Jacob's Dream	Healing of the Crippled and the Blind
	Lamech Kills Cain	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»	Jacob Wrestles with the Angel	Anointing at Bethany
	Noah Commands the Construction of the Ark	Nave: «Old Testament cycle»
Medallion	Medallion	Triumphal arch	Medallion	Figure
	Full-length figure	Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	Full-length figure	Full-length figure
Journey of the Magi / Wedding at Cana	Deposition	Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	Christ with the Disciples on the Road to Emmaus	The Miraculous Haul of Fish
Adoration of the Magi	Burial of Christ	Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	Supper at Emmaus	Ascension
Herod Orders the Massacre of the Innocents		Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	The Two Disciples After Christ Disappeared at Emmaus
Massacre of the Innocents / Baptism of Christ	Christ in Limbo	Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	The Two Disciples Return to Jerusalem	Pentecost
	Full-length figure	Transept: «Life of Christ cycle»	Full-length figure	Full-length figure
Medallion	Medallion	Apsidal arch	Medallion	Christ Crowns King William II
Jacob	Malachi, Jonah	Side-walls of choir	Baptism of Saint Paul	Saint Paul Flees Damascus
Zechariah	Ezekiel, Moses	Side-walls of choir	Saint Paul Disputes with the Jews	Saint Paul Entrusts Letters to Timothy and Silas
Tetramorph and Seraphim	Archangels Raphael and Michael	Apse
Christ Pantocrator	Disciples	Apse	Saints

Apsidal arch


King William II Crowned by Christ	King William II Offering the Church to the Virgin Mary

Old Testament

Earthly Paradise cycle

	Latin inscription	Translation	Image
1	COLLOCAVIT DEUS ADAM IN PARADISO	God placed Adam in paradise
2	REQUIEVIT ADAM IN PARADISO	Adam rested in paradise
3	IMMISIT DOMINUS SOPOREM IN ADAM ET TULIT EVAM DE COSTIA EIUS	The Lord sent a sleep on Adam and brought Eve from his side
4	ADDUCIT DOMINUS MULIEREM AD ADAM DIXITQUE ADAM HOC ENIM OS EX OSSIBUS MEIS ET CARO DE CARNE MEA	The Lord led the woman to Adam and Adam said "For this is bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh"
5	NEQUAQUAM MORIEMINI SI COMEDETIS ERITIS SICUT DII	You shall by no means die; if you eat it you shall become like God
6	MULIER SUGGESTIONI SERPENTIS TULIT DE FRUCTU ET COMEDIT DEDITQUE VIRO SUO	At the serpent's suggestion, the woman picked the fruit and ate it and gave it to her husband
7	VOCAVIT DOMINUS DEUS ADAM ET DIXIT EI UBI ES ET QUIS INDICAVIT TIBI QUOD NUDUS ESSES	The Lord God called Adam and said "Where are you?"; "And who told you that your were naked?"
8	HIC EXPULIT ADAM ET EVA DE PARADISO DEUS ET POSUIT CHERUBIM CUSTODEM CUN FLAMMEO GLADIO	Here God expels Adam and Eve and places a cherubim on guard with a flaming sword
9	ADAM CEPIT LABORARE TERREM	Adam begins working the land
10	CAYM ET ABEL OFFERUNT DOMINO HOLOCAUSTA	Cain and Abel offer burned-offerings to the Lord
11	INTERFECTUS ABEL A FRATRE SUO CAYM	Abel Killed by his Brother Cain
12	DIXIT DEUS, CAYM, CAYM, SANGUIS FRATRIS TUI VOCAT ME DE TERRA	God said "Cain, Cain, your brother's blood calls to me from the earth"
13	TRAHENS LAMECH ARCU SUO INTERFICIT CAYM	Dragging his arch Lamech kills Cain

Abram cycle

	Latin inscription	Translation	Image
1	ABRAHAM ANGELOS HOSPITIO SUSCEPIT ET CUM TRES VIDERET UNUM ADORAVIT	Abraham welcomed the angels and adored them, seeing the three as one
2	ABRAHAM MINISTRAT ANGELIS	Abraham serves the angels
3	ANGELIS DIRIGUNT OCULOS CONTRA SODOMEN SODOMITÆ VALLAVERUNT DOMUM LOTH	Angels direct their eyes against Sodom; the Sodomites surround Lot's house
4	SUMMERSIUM SODOMA FUGIT LOTH CUM UXORE ET FILIABUS SUIS	Destruction of Sodom; Lot flees with his wife and daughters
5	PRÆCEPIT DEUS ABRAHÆ UT IMMOLARET FILIUM SUUM	God commands Abraham to sacrifice his son
6	ABRAHAM, ABRAHAM, NE EXDENDAS MANUM TUAM SUPER PUERUM	Abraham, Abraham, do not reach out your hand against the boy
7	REBECCA DAT POTUM SERVO ABRAHÆ ET CAMELIS SUIS	Rebecca gives drink to Abraham's servant and his camels
8	REBECCA VADIT CUM SERVO ABRAHÆ	Rebecca goes with Abraham's servant
9	DIXIT ISAAC AD FILIUM SUUM ESAU SUME ARMA TUA ET EGREDERE FORA CUMQUE VENATUM ALIQUOD APPREBENDES FACINDE PALMENTUM UT COMENDAM ET BENEDICAM TIBI ANTEQUAM MORIAM	Isaac said to his son "Esau, take your arms and your bow and with them go hunt for something. Prepare me food that I may give you my blessing before I die
10	HIC BENEDIXIT ISAAC IACOB FILIUM SUUM	Here Isaac Blesses his son Jacob
11	REBECCA DIXIT FILIO SUO JACOB FUGE AD LABAN FRATREM MEUM IN HARAM	Rebecca said to her son Jacob "Flee to Laban, my brother in Haram"
12	VIDIT JACOB SCALAM SUMMITAS EIUS CÆLOS TANGEBAT - EREXIT JACOB LAPIDEM IN TITULUM FUNDENS OLEUM DESUPER - JACOB FUGIEBAT - JACOB INALAVIT CUM ANGELO ANGELUS BENEDIXIT ET DICENS NEQUAQUAM VOCABERIS JACOB, SED ISRAEL ERIT NOMEN TUUM	Jacob saw a ladder reaching up to heaven - Jacob set up the stone as a pillar, pouring oil upon it - Jacob was fleeing - Jacob wrestles with an angel; the angel blessed him, saying "You shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel shall be your name"

New Testament

Life of Christ

Christ's Miracles (north side)

	Latin inscription	Translation	Image
1	IESUS MULIERUM ANNIS DECEM ET OCTO CURVAM ERIGIT ET ARCHISYNAGOGUM INDIGNATEM INCREPAT	Jesus heals the woman infirm for 18 years and clashes with the indignant leaders of the synagogue
2	SANCTUS FIRMUS	Saint Firmus
3	IESUS IN DOMO CUJUSDAM PRINCIPIS FARISEORUM SANAT HYDROPICUM DIE SABBATI	Jesus heals the man with dropsy in the house of the leader of the Pharisees on the Sabbath day
4	IESUS CUM INGREDERETUR QUODDAM CASTELLUM DECEM VIRI LEPROSI OCCURRERUNT EI QUOS UT VIDIT DIXIT OSTENDITE VOS SACERDOTIBUS ET DUM IRENT MUNDATI SUNT	Entering a town, Jesus healed ten men with leprosy and told them "Show yourselves to the priests"; and as they went they were made clean
5	IESUS ILLUMINAT DUOS CÆCOS SECUS VIAM SEDENTES ET CLAMANTES DOMINI MISERERE NOSTRIS	Jesus gives sight to two blind men sitting by the road and shouting "Lord, have pity on us"
6	IESUS EJECIT DE TEMPLO OVES ET BOVES ET MENSAS NUMMULARIORUM EVERTIT	Jesus throws the sheep and cattle out of the temple and overturns the money-changers' tables
7	MISERUNT IN TEMPLUM HOMINEM PARALYTICUM IN LECTO ANTE PEDES IESU ET SANAVIT EUM	They sent the paralysed man in to the temple in his bed before Jesus' feet and he healed him
8	IUDAEI TENTANTES ADDUCUNT AD IESUM MULIEREM IN ADULTERIO DEPREHENSAM	The Jews take the woman caught in adultery before Jesus to test him
9	IESUS SANAT CÆCOS ET CLAUDIOS	Jesus heals the crippled and the blind
10	MARIA MAGDALENA UNGIT PEDES IESUS LACRIMIS LAVAT ET CAPILLIS EXTERGIT	Mary Magdalene washes Jesus' feet with her tears and dries them with her hair
11	DOMINI FILIUS MEUS JACET IN LECTO PARALYTICUS ET MALE TORQUETUR	Lord, my son lies paralysed in bed and in great pain

Nativity (south side)

Christ Tempted

	Latin inscription	Translation	Image
1	ZACHARIAS STUPEFACTUS IN TEMPLO VERBIS ANGELI OBMUTUIT	Zechariah is struck dumb for not believing the angel's words in the temple
2	ZACHARIAS DE TEMPLO EGREDITUR, NON VALENS LOQUI EXPECTANTIBUS	Zechariah leaves the temple, unable to speak to those awaiting him
3	ANNUNCIATIO SANCTÆ MARIÆ	Annunciation to the Virgin Mary
4	AUDIVIT SALUTATIONEM MARIÆ, EXULTAVIT INFANS IN UTERO HELISABET	On hearing Mary's greeting, the child leaps in Elisabeth's womb
5	SANCTUS IOSEPH	Saint Joseph
6	NATIVITAS IESUS CHRISTI	Nativity of Jesus Christ
7	PASTORES	Shepherds
8	MAGI VIDENTES STELLAM IN ORIENTEM VENERUNT IN HIERUSALEM	Seeing a star in the east, the Magi come to Jerusalem
9	MAGI MUNERA OFFERUNT DOMINO IESU CHRISTO	The Magi offer their gifts to the Lord Jesus Christ
10	HERODE REX. ITE OCCIDITE OMNES PUERES A BIMATU ET INFRA	King Herod. "Go kill all the boys aged two and under."
11	IUSSU HERODIS TRUCIDANT PUEROS, RACHEL PLORAT FILIOS SUOS	They slaughter the boys according to Herod's command; "Rachel weeps for her children"
12	ANGELIS IN SOMNIS LOQUITUR IOSEPH, TOLLE PUERUM ET FUGE IN ÆGIPTUM	An angel spoke to Joseph in a dream, "Take the boy and flee to Egypt"
13	PRESENTATIO CHRISTI IN TEMPLO	Presentation of Christ in the Temple
14	STETIT IN MEDIO DOCTORUM	He stood amidst the doctors
15	JESUS SEDENS AD NUPTIAS DE AQUA FECIT VINUM	Sitting at the wedding in Cana, Jesus turns water into wine
16	BAPTISMUS CHRISTI	Baptism of Christ

Passion (south side)

	Latin inscription	Translation	Images
1	IESUS CHRISTUS DUCTUS AD CRUCIS PASSIONE	Jesus Christ led to his cross and passion
2	IESUS CHRISTI CRICIFIXIO	Jesus Christ crucified
3	DESCENSIO CORPORIS CHRISTI	Christ's body taken down
4	CORPUS CHRISTI PONITUR IN SEPULCHRO	Christ's body placed in the tomb
5	RESURRECTIO CHRISTI	Resurrection of Christ
6	ITE ET DICITE DISCIPULIS EIUS ET PETRO QUIA SURREXTIT ET NON EST HIC	"Go and tell his disciples and Peter that he has risen and is not here
7	NOLI ME TANGERE, NONDUM ENIM ASCENDI AD PATREM MEUM	"Do not touch me, for I have not yet ascended to my father"
8	QUI SUNT HI SERMONES, QUO CONFERTIS AD INVICEM AMBULANTES ET ESSIS TRISTES	"What are you sadly talking of as you walk along?"
9	COGNOVERUNT EUM IN FRACTIONE PANIS	They knew him in the breaking of bread.
10	NONNE COR NOSTRUM ARDENS ERAT IN NOBIS DE IESU	"Did not our hearts burn within us because of Jesus?"
11	INGRESSI IN HIERUSALEM DUO DISCIPULI, INVENERUNT CONGREGATOS UNDECIM DICENTES, QUOD SURREXIT DOMINUS VERE ET APPARUIT SIMONI	Entering Jerusalem, the two disciples went to the eleven gathered together, who said to them "The Lord has risen indeed and has appeared to Simon."
12	JESUS DICIT THOMA, INFER DIGITUM TUUM HIC ET OFFER MANUM TUAM IN LATUS MEUM	Jesus said to Thomas, "Place your finger here and put your hand in my side"
13	PETRO MERGENTE IN MARE TRAHENTIBUS DISCIPULIS PLENUM RETE	Peter jumping into the sea, with the disciples dragging the full net
14	ASCENSIO DOMINI	Ascension of the Lord
15	PENTECOSTEN	Pentecost