List of causes of death by rate
The following is a list of the causes of human deaths worldwide for different years arranged by their associated mortality rates. Some causes listed include deaths also included in more specific subordinate causes, and some causes are omitted, so the percentages may only sum approximately to 100%. The causes listed are relatively immediate medical causes, but the ultimate cause of death might be described differently. For example, tobacco smoking often causes lung disease or cancer, and alcohol use disorder can cause liver failure or a motor vehicle accident. For statistics on preventable ultimate causes, see preventable causes of death.
In 2002, there were about 57 million deaths. In 2005, according to the World Health Organization using the International Classification of Diseases, about 58 million people died. In 2010, according to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 52.8 million people died. In 2016, the WHO recorded 56.7 million deaths with the leading cause of death as cardiovascular disease causing more than 17 million deaths as shown in the chart to the side. In 2021, there were approx. 68 million deaths worldwide, as per WHO report.
Besides frequency, other measures to compare, consider, and monitor trends of causes of deaths include disability-adjusted life year and years of potential life lost.
By frequency
Age standardized death rate, per 100,000, by cause, in 2017, and percentage change 2007–2017.Overview table
This first table gives a convenient overview of the general categories and broad causes. The leading cause is cardiovascular disease at 31.59% of all deaths.| Category | Cause | Percent | Percent |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Respiratory infections and tuberculosis | 6.85 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Enteric infections | 3.31 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Sexually transmitted infections | 1.88 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Tropical diseases and malaria | 1.37 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Other infectious diseases | 1.57 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Maternal and neonatal disorders | 4.00 | 19.49% |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders | Nutritional deficiencies | 0.52 | 19.49% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Cardiovascular diseases | 31.59 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Neoplasms | 16.43 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Chronic respiratory diseases | 6.97 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Digestive diseases | 4.11 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Neurological disorders | 5.84 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Substance abuse | 0.58 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Diabetes and kidney diseases | 4.55 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Skin diseases | 0.18 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Musculoskeletal disorders | 0.22 | 72.67% |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | Other non-communicable | 2.22 | 72.67% |
| III. Injuries | Transport injuries | 2.30 | 7.85% |
| III. Injuries | Unintentional injuries | 3.23 | 7.85% |
| III. Injuries | Self harm and violence | 2.32 | 7.85% |
| Total | 100% | 100% |
Developed vs. developing economies
Top causes of death, according to the World Health Organization report for the calendar year 2001:| Causes of death in developing countries | Number of deaths | Causes of death in developed countries | Number of deaths |
| HIV-AIDS | 2,678,000 | Ischaemic heart disease | 3,512,000 |
| Lower respiratory infections | 2,643,000 | Cerebrovascular disease | 3,346,000 |
| Ischaemic heart disease | 2,484,000 | Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 1,829,000 |
| Diarrhea | 1,793,000 | Lower respiratory infections | 1,180,000 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 1,381,000 | Lung cancer | 938,000 |
| Childhood diseases | 1,217,000 | Traffic accident | 669,000 |
| Malaria | 1,103,000 | Stomach cancer | 657,000 |
| Tuberculosis | 1,021,000 | Hypertensive heart disease | 635,000 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 748,000 | Tuberculosis | 571,000 |
| Measles | 674,000 | Suicide | 499,000 |
Detailed table
This table gives a more detailed and specific breakdown of the causes for the year 2017. Figures have a margin of error of about 5% on average.| Cause | Rate | % total | % change 2007–2017 |
| All causes | 737.7 | 100% | −14.2 |
| I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional disorders | 143.8 | 19.49% | −31.8 |
| Respiratory infections and tuberculosis | 50.5 | 6.85% | −24.5 |
| Tuberculosis | 14.9 | 2.02% | −31.4 |
| Drug-susceptible tuberculosis | 13.2 | 1.79% | −31.9 |
| Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis without extensive drug resistance | 1.6 | 0.22% | −28.6 |
| Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis | 0.2 | 0.03% | −7.7 |
| Lower respiratory infections | 35.4 | 4.80% | −21.1 |
| Upper respiratory infections | 0.1 | 0.01% | −42.1 |
| Otitis media | 0.0 | 0.00% | −50.4 |
| Enteric infections | 24.4 | 3.31% | −29.9 |
| Diarrhoeal diseases | 21.6 | 2.93% | −30.2 |
| Typhoid and paratyphoid | 1.9 | 0.26% | −27.8 |
| 1.6 | 0.22% | −29.1 | |
| 0.3 | 0.04% | −18.9 | |
| iNTS | 0.8 | 0.11% | −24.8 |
| Other intestinal infectious diseases | 0.0 | 0.00% | −44.7 |
| Sexually transmitted infections | 13.9 | 1.88% | −53.6 |
| HIV/AIDS | 12.1 | 1.64% | −56.5 |
| HIV/AIDS – Drug-susceptible Tuberculosis | 2.5 | 0.34% | −61.1 |
| HIV/AIDS – Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis without extensive drug resistance | 0.3 | 0.04% | −58.1 |
| HIV/AIDS – Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis | 0.0 | 0.00% | −20.3 |
| HIV/AIDS resulting in other diseases | 9.3 | 1.26% | −55.1 |
| Sexually transmitted infections excluding HIV | 1.8 | 0.24% | −14.4 |
| Syphilis | 1.7 | 0.23% | −14.3 |
| Chlamydial infection | 0.0 | 0.00% | −15.2 |
| Gonococcal infection | 0.0 | 0.00% | −14.9 |
| Other sexually transmitted infections | 0.0 | 0.00% | −15.9 |
| Neglected tropical diseases and malaria | 10.1 | 1.37% | −36.1 |
| Malaria | 8.7 | 1.18% | −37.3 |
| Chagas disease | 0.1 | 0.01% | −21.1 |
| Leishmaniasis | 0.1 | 0.01% | −67.8 |
| 0.1 | 0.01% | −67.8 | |
| African trypanosomiasis | 0.0 | 0.00% | −82.8 |
| Schistosomiasis | 0.1 | 0.01% | −28.5 |
| Cysticercosis | 0.0 | 0.00% | −27.3 |
| Cystic echinococcosis | 0.0 | 0.00% | −41.9 |
| Dengue | 0.5 | 0.07% | 40.7 |
| Yellow fever | 0.1 | 0.01% | −23.3 |
| Rabies | 0.2 | 0.03% | −54.8 |
| Intestinal nematode infections | 0.0 | 0.00% | −47.2 |
| 0.0 | 0.00% | −47.2 | |
| Ebola virus disease | 0.0 | 0.00% | −98.4 |
| Zika virus disease | 0.0 | 0.00% | – |
| Other neglected tropical diseases | 0.2 | 0.03% | −3.7 |
| Other infectious diseases | 11.6 | 1.57% | −33.8 |
| Meningitis | 4.0 | 0.54% | −27.8 |
| Pneumococcal meningitis | 0.6 | 0.08% | −22.4 |
| H influenzae type B meningitis | 1.1 | 0.15% | −40.6 |
| Meningococcal infection | 0.4 | 0.05% | −37.1 |
| Other meningitis | 2.0 | 0.27% | −17.3 |
| Encephalitis | 1.2 | 0.16% | −14.3 |
| Diphtheria | 0.1 | 0.01% | −28.6 |
| Whooping cough | 1.4 | 0.19% | −27.1 |
| Tetanus | 0.5 | 0.07% | −59.6 |
| Measles | 1.4 | 0.19% | −59.3 |
| Varicella and herpes zoster | 0.2 | 0.03% | −29.2 |
| Acute hepatitis | 1.6 | 0.22% | −24.5 |
| Acute hepatitis A | 0.3 | 0.04% | −38.7 |
| Acute hepatitis B | 1.1 | 0.15% | −19.6 |
| Acute hepatitis C | 0.0 | 0.00% | −32.1 |
| Acute hepatitis E | 0.2 | 0.03% | −25.8 |
| Other unspecified infectious diseases | 1.1 | 0.15% | −13.4 |
| Maternal and neonatal disorders | 29.5 | 4.00% | −26.6 |
| Maternal disorders | 2.5 | 0.34% | −30.7 |
| Maternal haemorrhage | 0.5 | 0.07% | −56.4 |
| Maternal sepsis and other pregnancy related infections | 0.3 | 0.04% | −33.5 |
| Maternal hypertensive disorders | 0.4 | 0.05% | −13.0 |
| Maternal obstructed labour and uterine rupture | 0.2 | 0.03% | −25.2 |
| Maternal abortive outcome | 0.2 | 0.03% | −15.7 |
| Ectopic pregnancy | 0.1 | 0.01% | −19.2 |
| Indirect maternal deaths | 0.4 | 0.05% | −12.5 |
| Late maternal deaths | 0.0 | 0.00% | −9.5 |
| Maternal deaths aggravated by HIV/AIDS | 0.0 | 0.00% | −32.1 |
| Other maternal disorders | 0.3 | 0.04% | −16.5 |
| Neonatal disorders | 27.1 | 3.67% | −26.2 |
| Neonatal preterm birth | 9.9 | 1.34% | −28.1 |
| Neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma | 8.1 | 1.10% | −26.5 |
| Neonatal sepsis and other neonatal infections | 3.1 | 0.42% | −14.4 |
| Hemolytic disease and other neonatal jaundice | 0.7 | 0.09% | −39.3 |
| Other neonatal disorders | 5.3 | 0.72% | −25.7 |
| Nutritional deficiencies | 3.8 | 0.52% | −33.6 |
| Protein-energy malnutrition | 3.3 | 0.45% | −34.6 |
| Other nutritional deficiencies | 0.5 | 0.07% | −25.8 |
| II. Non-communicable diseases | 536.1 | 72.67% | −7.9 |
| Cardiovascular diseases | 233.1 | 31.60% | −10.3 |
| Rheumatic heart disease | 3.7 | 0.50% | −21.3 |
| Ischaemic heart disease | 116.9 | 15.85% | −9.7 |
| Stroke | 80.5 | 10.91% | −13.6 |
| Ischaemic stroke | 36.6 | 4.96% | −11.8 |
| Intracerebral hemorrhage | 38.2 | 5.18% | −15.7 |
| Subarachnoid hemorrhage | 5.7 | 0.77% | −9.4 |
| Hypertensive heart disease | 12.3 | 1.67% | 7.5 |
| Non-rheumatic valvular heart disease | 2.0 | 0.27% | −5.3 |
| Non-rheumatic calcific aortic valve disease | 1.4 | 0.19% | −1.0 |
| Non-rheumatic degenerative mitral valve disease | 0.5 | 0.07% | −14.0 |
| Other non-rheumatic valve diseases | 0.1 | 0.01% | −17.8 |
| Cardiomyopathy and myocarditis | 4.8 | 0.65% | −16.6 |
| Myocarditis | 0.6 | 0.08% | −13.3 |
| Alcoholic cardiomyopathy | 1.1 | 0.15% | −40.5 |
| Other cardiomyopathy | 3.1 | 0.42% | −3.6 |
| Atrial fibrillation and flutter | 4.0 | 0.54% | 2.6 |
| Aortic aneurysm | 2.2 | 0.30% | −8.5 |
| Peripheral vascular disease | 1.0 | 0.14% | 10.5 |
| Endocarditis | 1.1 | 0.15% | 1.0 |
| Other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases | 4.7 | 0.64% | −7.9 |
| Neoplasms | 121.2 | 16.43% | −4.4 |
| Lip and oral cavity cancer | 2.4 | 0.33% | 4.0 |
| Nasopharynx cancer | 0.9 | 0.12% | −3.0 |
| Other pharynx cancer | 1.4 | 0.19% | 7.9 |
| Oesophageal cancer | 5.5 | 0.75% | −14.5 |
| Stomach cancer | 11.0 | 1.49% | −17.1 |
| Colon and rectum cancer | 11.5 | 1.56% | −4.3 |
| Liver cancer | 10.2 | 1.38% | −2.5 |
| 4.0 | 0.54% | −6.2 | |
| 3.0 | 0.41% | −2.1 | |
| 1.6 | 0.22% | 0.6 | |
| 0.8 | 0.11% | 7.6 | |
| 0.8 | 0.11% | −0.9 | |
| Gallbladder and biliary tract cancer | 2.2 | 0.30% | −6.7 |
| Pancreatic cancer | 5.6 | 0.76% | 4.8 |
| Larynx cancer | 1.6 | 0.22% | −7.7 |
| Tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer | 23.7 | 3.21% | −2.0 |
| Malignant skin melanoma | 0.8 | 0.11% | −5.1 |
| Non-melanoma skin cancer | 0.8 | 0.11% | 2.7 |
| 0.8 | 0.11% | 2.7 | |
| Breast cancer | 7.6 | 1.03% | −2.6 |
| Cervical cancer | 3.2 | 0.43% | −7.2 |
| Uterine cancer | 1.1 | 0.15% | −10.4 |
| Ovarian cancer | 2.2 | 0.30% | −1.0 |
| Prostate cancer | 5.5 | 0.75% | −2.5 |
| Testicular cancer | 0.1 | 0.01% | −9.4 |
| Kidney cancer | 1.8 | 0.24% | −1.3 |
| Bladder cancer | 2.6 | 0.35% | −5.4 |
| Brain and nervous system cancer | 3.1 | 0.42% | 3.8 |
| Thyroid cancer | 0.5 | 0.07% | −1.2 |
| Mesothelioma | 0.4 | 0.05% | −3.4 |
| Hodgkin lymphoma | 0.4 | 0.05% | −16.8 |
| Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma | 3.2 | 0.43% | 0.1 |
| Multiple myeloma | 1.4 | 0.19% | −0.4 |
| Leukaemia | 4.5 | 0.61% | −9.6 |
| Acute lymphoid leukaemia | 0.7 | 0.09% | −1.5 |
| Chronic lymphoid leukaemia | 0.5 | 0.07% | −10.3 |
| Acute myeloid leukaemia | 1.3 | 0.18% | −1.0 |
| Chronic myeloid leukaemia | 0.3 | 0.04% | −19.9 |
| Other leukaemia | 1.8 | 0.24% | −15.6 |
| Other malignant cancers | 4.6 | 0.62% | 0.1 |
| Other neoplasms | 1.3 | 0.18% | 7.4 |
| Myelodysplastic, myeloproliferative and other hematopoietic neoplasms | 1.3 | 0.18% | 7.1 |
| Other benign and in situ neoplasms | 0.1 | 0.01% | 15.5 |
| Chronic respiratory diseases | 51.4 | 6.97% | −14.2 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 42.2 | 5.72% | −13.6 |
| Pneumoconiosis | 0.3 | 0.04% | −16.7 |
| 0.1 | 0.01% | −15.5 | |
| 0.0 | 0.00% | −8.3 | |
| 0.0 | 0.00% | −26.6 | |
| 0.0 | 0.00% | −17.5 | |
| Asthma | 6.3 | 0.85% | −23.9 |
| Interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis | 1.9 | 0.26% | 11.4 |
| Other chronic respiratory diseases | 0.7 | 0.09% | −3.2 |
| Digestive diseases | 30.3 | 4.11% | −10.7 |
| Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases | 16.5 | 2.24% | −9.7 |
| Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to hepatitis B | 4.8 | 0.65% | −14.3 |
| Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to hepatitis C | 4.2 | 0.57% | −8.4 |
| Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to alcohol use | 4.1 | 0.56% | −8.8 |
| Cirrhosis due to NASH | 1.5 | 0.20% | −1.4 |
| Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to other causes | 1.9 | 0.26% | −8.6 |
| Upper digestive system diseases | 3.8 | 0.52% | −21.6 |
| Peptic ulcer disease | 3.1 | 0.42% | −23.5 |
| Gastritis and duodenitis | 0.7 | 0.09% | −11.7 |
| Appendicitis | 0.6 | 0.08% | −17.0 |
| Paralytic ileus and intestinal obstruction | 3.2 | 0.43% | −5.8 |
| Inguinal, femoral, and abdominal hernia | 0.6 | 0.08% | −8.9 |
| Inflammatory bowel disease | 0.5 | 0.07% | −10.5 |
| Vascular intestinal disorders | 1.3 | 0.18% | −10.2 |
| Gallbladder and biliary diseases | 1.5 | 0.20% | −5.0 |
| Pancreatitis | 1.3 | 0.18% | −5.7 |
| Other digestive diseases | 1.2 | 0.16% | −7.1 |
| Neurological disorders | 43.1 | 5.84% | 0.1 |
| Alzheimer's disease and other dementias | 35.4 | 4.80% | 0.6 |
| Parkinson's disease | 4.6 | 0.62% | 0.8 |
| Epilepsy | 1.7 | 0.23% | −10.7 |
| Multiple sclerosis | 0.3 | 0.04% | −3.9 |
| Motor neuron disease | 0.4 | 0.05% | 1.2 |
| Other neurological disorders | 0.7 | 0.09% | 2.0 |
| Mental disorders | 0.0 | 0.00% | 7.5 |
| Eating disorders | 0.0 | 0.00% | 7.5 |
| Anorexia nervosa | 0.0 | 0.00% | 5.5 |
| Bulimia nervosa | 0.0 | 0.00% | 13.5 |
| Substance use disorders | 4.3 | 0.58% | 2.0 |
| Alcohol use disorders | 2.3 | 0.31% | −16.5 |
| Drug use disorders | 2.1 | 0.28% | 34.1 |
| Opioid use disorders | 1.4 | 0.19% | 49.4 |
| Cocaine use disorders | 0.1 | 0.01% | 19.6 |
| Amphetamine use disorders | 0.1 | 0.01% | 8.7 |
| Other drug use disorders | 0.6 | 0.08% | 11.3 |
| Diabetes and kidney diseases | 33.6 | 4.55% | 1.3 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 17.5 | 2.37% | 1.2 |
| Diabetes mellitus type 1 | 4.3 | 0.58% | −11.0 |
| Diabetes mellitus type 2 | 13.2 | 1.79% | 5.9 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 15.9 | 2.16% | 1.5 |
| Chronic kidney disease due to diabetes mellitus type 1 | 0.9 | 0.12% | −1.2 |
| Chronic kidney disease due to diabetes mellitus type 2 | 4.5 | 0.61% | 4.2 |
| Chronic kidney disease due to hypertension | 4.6 | 0.62% | 3.2 |
| Chronic kidney disease due to glomerulonephritis | 2.4 | 0.33% | −1.3 |
| Chronic kidney disease due to other and unspecified causes | 3.4 | 0.46% | −1.4 |
| Acute glomerulonephritis | 0.1 | 0.01% | −9.5 |
| Skin and subcutaneous diseases | 1.3 | 0.18% | 8.1 |
| Bacterial skin diseases | 1.0 | 0.14% | 12.7 |
| 0.2 | 0.03% | 19.6 | |
| 0.8 | 0.11% | 10.5 | |
| Decubitus ulcer | 0.3 | 0.04% | −5.1 |
| Other skin and subcutaneous diseases | 0.1 | 0.01% | 3.3 |
| Musculoskeletal disorders | 1.6 | 0.22% | −0.1 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 0.6 | 0.08% | −5.9 |
| Other musculoskeletal disorders | 1.0 | 0.14% | 3.9 |
| Other non-communicable diseases | 16.3 | 2.21% | −11.2 |
| Congenital anomalies | 8.7 | 1.18% | −18.2 |
| Neural tube defects | 0.9 | 0.12% | −16.5 |
| Congenital heart anomalies | 3.9 | 0.53% | −21.8 |
| Orofacial clefts | 0.1 | 0.01% | −41.9 |
| Down syndrome | 0.4 | 0.05% | −5.2 |
| Other chromosomal abnormalities | 0.3 | 0.04% | 0.3 |
| Congenital musculoskeletal and limb anomalies | 0.2 | 0.03% | −12.8 |
| Urogenital congenital anomalies | 0.2 | 0.03% | −8.5 |
| Digestive congenital anomalies | 0.8 | 0.11% | −19.3 |
| Other congenital anomalies | 2.1 | 0.28% | −15.9 |
| Urinary diseases and male infertility | 3.6 | 0.49% | 5.7 |
| Urinary tract infections | 2.7 | 0.37% | 10.9 |
| Urolithiasis | 0.2 | 0.03% | −1.2 |
| Other urinary diseases | 0.7 | 0.09% | −9.9 |
| Gynecological diseases | 0.1 | 0.01% | −2.6 |
| Uterine fibroids | 0.0 | 0.00% | 8.1 |
| Polycystic ovarian syndrome | 0.0 | 0.00% | 1.0 |
| Endometriosis | 0.0 | 0.00% | −3.2 |
| Genital prolapse | 0.0 | 0.00% | −24.1 |
| Other gynecological diseases | 0.1 | 0.01% | −3.6 |
| Hemoglobinopathies and hemolytic anaemias | 1.4 | 0.19% | −11.3 |
| Thalassemias | 0.1 | 0.01% | −27.9 |
| Sickle cell disorders | 0.5 | 0.07% | −3.1 |
| G6PD deficiency | 0.2 | 0.03% | −7.1 |
| Other hemoglobinopathies and hemolytic anaemias | 0.6 | 0.08% | −16.1 |
| Endocrine, metabolic, blood, and immune disorders | 1.9 | 0.26% | 0.8 |
| Sudden infant death syndrome | 0.6 | 0.08% | −20.2 |
| III. Injuries | 57.9 | 7.85% | −13.7 |
| Transport injuries | 17.0 | 2.30% | −17.0 |
| Road injuries | 15.8 | 2.14% | −17.1 |
| Pedestrian road injuries | 6.2 | 0.84% | −21.4 |
| Cyclist road injuries | 0.9 | 0.12% | −8.8 |
| Motorcyclist road injuries | 2.9 | 0.39% | −12.4 |
| Motor vehicle road injuries | 5.8 | 0.79% | −15.6 |
| Other road injuries | 0.1 | 0.01% | −19.4 |
| Other transport injuries | 1.2 | 0.16% | −15.5 |
| Unintentional injuries | 23.8 | 3.23% | −15.3 |
| Falls | 9.2 | 1.25% | −2.8 |
| Drowning | 4.0 | 0.54% | −27.3 |
| Fire, heat, and hot substances | 1.6 | 0.22% | −22.9 |
| Poisonings | 0.9 | 0.12% | −20.8 |
| 0.5 | 0.07% | −26.6 | |
| 0.5 | 0.07% | −14.4 | |
| Exposure to mechanical forces | 1.8 | 0.24% | −20.3 |
| 0.3 | 0.04% | −16.4 | |
| 1.5 | 0.20% | −21.0 | |
| Adverse effects of medical treatment | 1.6 | 0.22% | −6.2 |
| Animal contact | 1.1 | 0.15% | −16.0 |
| 0.9 | 0.12% | −16.0 | |
| 0.1 | 0.01% | −16.1 | |
| Foreign body | 1.7 | 0.23% | −14.1 |
| 1.6 | 0.22% | −13.9 | |
| 0.1 | 0.01% | −15.8 | |
| Environmental heat and cold exposure | 0.7 | 0.09% | −29.4 |
| Exposure to forces of nature | 0.1 | 0.01% | −45.8 |
| Other unintentional injuries | 1.2 | 0.16% | −25.8 |
| Self-harm and interpersonal violence | 17.1 | 2.32% | −7.6 |
| Self-harm | 10.0 | 1.36% | −14.8 |
| Self-harm by firearm | 0.8 | 0.11% | −10.3 |
| Self-harm by other specified means | 9.2 | 1.25% | −15.2 |
| Interpersonal violence | 5.2 | 0.70% | −11.1 |
| Assault by firearm | 2.2 | 0.30% | −3.6 |
| Assault by sharp object | 1.2 | 0.16% | −22.3 |
| Assault by other means | 1.8 | 0.24% | −11.5 |
| Conflict and terrorism | 1.7 | 0.23% | 98.4 |
| Executions and police conflict | 0.2 | 0.03% | 172.4 |
Underlying causes
Causes of death can be structured into immediate causes of death or primary causes of death, conditions leading to cause of death, underlying causes, and further relevant conditions that may have contributed to fatal outcome.According to the WHO, underlying causes are "the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury".
Malnutrition
Malnutrition can be identified as an underlying cause for shortened life. 70% of childhood deaths are reportedly due to diarrheal illness, acute respiratory infection, malaria and immunizable disease. However 56% of these childhood deaths can be attributed to the effects of malnutrition as an underlying cause.The effects of malnutrition include increased susceptibility to infection, musculature wasting, skeletal deformities and neurologic development delays. According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is named as the biggest contributor to child mortality with 36 million deaths in 2005 related to malnutrition.
Obesity and unhealthy diets
Beyond undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, malnutrition also includes obesity, which predisposes towards several chronic diseases, including 13 different types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes. According to the WHO, being "chronically overweight and obesity are among the leading causes of death and disability in Europe", with estimates suggesting they cause more than 1.2 million deaths annually, corresponding to over 13% of total mortality in the region. Various types of health policy could counter the trend and reduce obesity.Diets, not just in terms of obesity but also of food composition, can have a major impact on underlying factors, with reviews suggesting i.a. that a 20-years old male in Europe who switches to the "optimal diet" could gain a mean of ~13.7 years of life and a 60-years old female in the U.S. switching to the "optimal diet" could gain a mean of ~8.0 years of life. It found the largest gains would be made by eating more legumes, whole grains, and nuts, and less red meat and processed meat. It also contains no consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. Lay summary:
Pollution
A review concluded that pollution was responsible for 9 million premature deaths in 2019. It concluded that little real progress against pollution can be identified.Air pollution
Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around ca. 7 million people worldwide each year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk, according to the WHO and the IEA.The IEA notes that many of root causes and cures can be found in the energy industry and suggests solutions such as retiring polluting coal-fired power plants and to establishing stricter standards for motor vehicles. In September 2020 the European Environment Agency reported that environmental factors such as air pollution and heatwaves contributed to around 13% of all human deaths in EU countries in 2012. A 2021 study using a high spatial resolution model and an updated concentration-response function finds that 10.2 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7 million in 2018 – or – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially subdivided mortality impacts.
A 2020 study indicates that the global mean loss of life expectancy from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence, albeit a significant fraction of the LLE is considered to be unavoidable.
Uses of nervous system drugs
According to the WHO, worldwide, about 0.5 million deaths are attributable to uses of drugs, with more than 70% of these being related to opioids, with overdose being the direct cause of more than 30% of those deaths.Various uses of various opioids accounts for many deaths worldwide, termed opioid epidemic. Nearly 75% of the 91,799 drug overdose deaths in 2020 in the United States involved an opioid.
Not all nervous system drugs are associated with risks for contributing to deaths as an underlying factor or for uses that are. In some cases, potentially harmful or harmful drugs can be substituted or weaned off with the help of pharmacological alternatives – such as potentially NAC and modafinil in the case of cocaine dependence – whose uses are not considered to be underlying causes of deaths. In some cases, they – including caffeine – can help improve general health such as, directly and indirectly, physical fitness and mental health either in general or in specific ranges of informed administrations.
Smoking
Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. It is an underlying cause of many cancers, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and respiratory diseases.Smoking usually refers to smoking of tobacco products. E-cigarettes also pose large risks to health. The health impacts of tobacco-alternative products such as various herbs and the use of charcoal filters are often investigated less, with existing research suggesting only limited benefits over tobacco smoking. Some smokers may benefit from switching to a vaporizer as a harm reduction measure if they do not quit, which however also only has little robust evidence. Frequency of use is a major factor in the level of risks or permanence and extent of health impacts.
A review found smoking and second-hand smoke to be a global underlying cause of death as large as pollution, which in that analysis was the largest major underlying factor.
Alcohol
Globally, alcohol use was the seventh leading risk factor for both deaths and DALY in 2016. A review found that the "risk of all-cause mortality, and of cancers specifically, rises with increasing levels of consumption, and the level of consumption that minimises health loss is zero".Non-optimal ambient temperatures
A study found that 9.4% of global deaths between 2000 and 2019 – ~5 million annually – can be attributed to extreme temperature with cold-related ones making up the larger share and decreasing and heat-related ones making up ~0.91% and increasing. Incidences of heart attacks, cardiac arrests and strokes increase under such conditions.Antimicrobial resistance
In a global assessment, scientists reported, based on medical records, that antibiotic resistance may have contributed to ~4.95 million deaths in 2019, with 1.3 million directly attributed – the latter being more than deaths than from e.g. AIDS or Malaria, despite being project to rise substantially.Comorbidities, general health, social factors and infectious diseases
Co-existing diseases can but don't necessarily contribute to death to various degrees in various ways.In some cases, comorbidities can be major causes with complex underlying mechanisms, and a range of comorbidities can be present once.
Pandemics and infectious diseases or epidemics can be major underlying causes of deaths. In a small study of 26 decedents, the pandemized COVID-19 and infection-related disease were "major contributors" to patients' death. Such deaths are sometimes evaluated via excess deaths per capita – the COVID-19 pandemic deaths between January 1, 2020, and December 31, 2021, are estimated to be ~18.2 million. Research could help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect consequences of the pandemic.
Mental health issues and related issues such as economic conditions and/or various uses of nervous system drugs can contribute to causes such as suicide or risky behavior related deaths.
Loneliness or insufficient social relationships is also a major underlying factor, which may be comparable to smoking and, according to one meta-analysis of 148 studies, "exceeds many well-known risk factors for mortality ". Injuries and violence are "the leading causes of death among children, adolescents, and young adults in the US" with underlying risk factors for such including "detrimental community, family, or individual circumstances" that increase the likelihood of violence. Types of preventive measures may include support of "healthy development of individuals, families, schools, and communities, and build capacity for positive relationships and interactions".
Lifestyle factors – including physical inactivity, and tobacco smoking and excessive alcohol use, healthy eating – and/or general health – including fitness beyond healthy diet and non-obesity – can be underlying contributors to death. For example, in a sample of U.S. adults, ~9.9% deaths of adults aged 40 to 69 years and ~7.8% adults aged 70 years or older were attributed to inadequate levels of physical activity.