Languages of Indonesia


is home to over 700 living languages spoken across its extensive archipelago. This significant linguistic variety constitutes approximately 10% of the world’s total languages, positioning Indonesia as the second most linguistically diverse nation globally, following Papua New Guinea. The majority of these languages belong to the Austronesian language family, prevalent in the western and central regions of Indonesia, including languages such as Acehnese, Sundanese, and Buginese. In contrast, the eastern regions, particularly Papua and the Maluku Islands, are home to more than 150 Papuan languages, which are distinct from the Austronesian family and represent a unique linguistic heritage. The language most widely spoken as a native language is Javanese, primarily by the Javanese people in the central and eastern parts of Java Island, as well as across many other islands due to migration.
Languages in Indonesia are classified into nine categories: national language, locally used indigenous languages, regional lingua francas, foreign and additional languages, heritage languages, languages in the religious domain, English as a lingua franca, and sign languages.

National language

The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian, a standardised form of Malay, which serves as the lingua franca of the archipelago. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian. The vocabulary of Indonesian borrows heavily from regional languages of Indonesia, such as Javanese, Sundanese and Minangkabau, as well as from Dutch, Sanskrit, Portuguese, Arabic and more recently English. The Indonesian language is primarily used in commerce, administration, education and the media, and thus nearly every Indonesian speaks the language to varying degrees of proficiency. Most Indonesians speak other languages, such as Javanese, as their first language. This makes plurilingualism a norm in Indonesia.

Indigenous languages and regional lingua francas

Indonesia recognizes only a single national language, and indigenous languages are recognized at the regional level, although policies vary from one region to another. For example, in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, the Javanese language is the region's official language along with Indonesian. Javanese is the most spoken indigenous language, with native speakers constituting 31.8% of the total population of Indonesia. Javanese speakers are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java, and there are also sizable numbers in most provinces. The next most widely spoken regional languages in the country are Sundanese, local Malay, Madurese, and Minangkabau. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.
There are hundreds of indigenous languages spoken in Indonesia. Most of them are locally used indigenous languages, a category of languages referring to those spoken at the local, regional level, spoken by a small number of people, ranging from a few to a few thousands of people. These include small languages such as Benggoi, Mombum, and Towei. Other languages are spoken at the regional level to connect various ethnicities. For this reason, these languages are known as regional lingua francas. According to Subhan Zein, there are at least 43 RLFs in Indonesia, categorized into two types: Malayic RLFs and Non-Malayic RLFs. The former refers to a group of regional lingua francas that are thought of as indigenised varieties of Malay or Indonesian. These include such languages as Ambonese Malay, Banjarese, Manado Malay, and Papuan Malay. The latter refers to regional lingua francas that are not associated with Malay or Indonesian, including Biak, Iban, and Onin.

Foreign languages

As early as the seventh century AD, the natives of the archipelago began an intense period of trade with people from China, India and other countries. This was followed by a long period of colonization by the Dutch and Portugal colonials. The outcome of these processes has been the development of a group of heritage languages spoken by Arab, Chinese, Eurasian and Dutch descendants, among others. Chinese linguistic varieties such as Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin are the most common heritage languages. Tamil is also spoken among majority of Indians in the country. A small number of heritage language speakers speak Arabic and Dutch.

Dutch

Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years the Dutch language has no official status in Indonesia. The small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession, as certain law codes are still available only in Dutch.

English

English has historically been categorized as the first foreign language in Indonesia. However, increasing exposure to English, the decreasing influence of native-speaker norms in the country and the prevalent use of English as a lingua franca in the broader context such as ASEAN means that the categorization has been put into question. Scholars such as Lowenberg argue that English is best seen as an additional language. Meanwhile, Zein argues that English in Indonesia is best categorized as a lingua franca, an argument parallel with Kirkpatrick's contention on the use of English as a lingua franca in the broader ASEAN context.

Other languages

Other languages, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Portuguese and Spanish, are non-native to Indonesia. These languages are included in the educational curriculum and may be categorized as either foreign or additional languages, depending on the instrumental function of the languages, length and types of exposure, as well as the wide-ranging motivations of the speakers or learners who use and or learn them.

Endangered languages

There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009, the second largest multilingual population in the world after Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]. Indonesian Papua, which is adjacent to Papua New Guinea, has the most languages in Indonesia. Based on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale classification used by Ethnologue, 63 languages are dying, which is defined as "The only fluent users are older than child-bearing age."

Language policy

Indonesia's national language policy is governed by various legal frameworks. Article 36C of the 1945 Constitution mandates that matters related to the national flag, language, emblem, and anthem must be regulated by law. This mandate led to the enactment of Law No. 24 of 2009 on the National Flag, Language, Emblem, and Anthem, which dedicates Chapter III to the regulation of the Indonesian language.
In addition to regulating the national language, the government has implemented a Regional Language Revitalization Program, which aims to preserve and promote local languages by ensuring their transmission to younger generations. To support this initiative, the ministry has published Guidelines for Regional Language Revitalization, providing a structured approach for implementation across different regions.
Indonesia is home to 718 regional languages, many of which are classified as endangered or critically endangered. The revitalization efforts are part of a broader strategy to maintain linguistic diversity while reinforcing the role of Indonesian as the national language.

Languages by speakers

The population numbers given below are of native speakers, excepting the figure for Indonesian, which counts its total speakers. The total population of the country was 237.6 million in 2010.
LanguageNumber% of total
population		BranchYear surveyedMain areas where spoken
Indonesian210000000Malayic2010Throughout Indonesia
Javanese84300000Javanese2000 Throughout Java Island and several provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan islands.
Sundanese42000000Sundanese2016West Java, Banten, Jakarta
Madurese13,600,000Madurese2000 Madura Island
Minangkabau5,500,000Malayic2007West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, Bengkulu, Jakarta
Buginese5,000,000South Sulawesi2000 South Sulawesi
Palembang Malay3,900,000Malayic2000 South Sumatra
Banjarese3,500,000Malayic2000 South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan
Acehnese3,500,000Chamic2000 Aceh
Balinese3,300,000Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa2000 Bali Island and Lombok Island
Betawi2,700,000Malay-based creole1993Jakarta
Sasak2,100,000Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa1989Lombok Island
Batak language|Batak Toba]2,000,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands1991North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands
Ambonese Malay1,900,000Malay-based creole1987Maluku
Makassarese2,100,000South Sulawesi2000 South Sulawesi
Min Nan1,300,000Sinitic2000North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands, West Kalimantan
Batak Dairi1,200,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands1991North Sumatra
Batak Simalungun1,200,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands2000 North Sumatra
Batak Mandailing1,100,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands2000 North Sumatra
Jambi Malay1,000,000Malayic2000 Jambi
Gorontalo1,000,000Philippine2000 Gorontalo
Ngaju Dayak900,000West Barito2003Central Kalimantan
Nias800,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands2000 Nias Island, North Sumatra
Batak Angkola700,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands1991North Sumatra
Manado Malay800,000Malay-based creole2001North Sulawesi
North Moluccan Malay700,000Malay-based creole2001North Maluku
Hakka600,000Sinitic1982Bangka Belitung, Riau Islands and West Kalimantan
Batak Karo600,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands1991North Sumatra
Uab Meto600,000Timor-Babar1997West Timor
Bima500,000Bima1989Sumbawa Island
Manggarai500,000Sumba-Flores1989Flores Island
Toraja-Sa’dan500,000South Sulawesi1990South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi
Komering500,000Lampungic2000 South Sumatra
Tetum400,000Timor-Babar2004West Timor
Rejang400,000Land Dayak2000 Bengkulu
Muna300,000Muna–Buton1989Southeast Sulawesi
Sumbawa300,000Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa1989Sumbawa Island
Bangka Malay300,000Malayic2000 Bangka Island
Osing300,000Javanese2000 East Java
Gayo300,000Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands2000 Aceh
Cantonese300,000Sinitic 2000North Sumatra, Riau Islands, Jakarta
Tolaki300,000Celebic1991Southeast Sulawesi
Taeʼ300,000South Sulawesi1992South Sulawesi

Languages by family

Several prominent languages spoken in Indonesia sorted by language family are:
There are many additional small families and isolates among the Papuan languages.
Below is a full list of Papuan language families spoken in Indonesia, following Palmer, et al. :
  1. Trans-New Guinea
  2. #Ok-Oksapmin
  3. #Dani
  4. #Asmat-Kamoro
  5. #Mek
  6. #Paniai Lakes
  7. #West Bomberai
  8. #Somahai
  9. #Anim
  10. #Greater Awyu
  11. #Kayagaric
  12. #Kolopom
  13. #Morori
  14. Timor-Alor-Pantar
  15. North [Halmahera languages|North Halmahera]
  16. Tambora†
  17. Nuclear [South Bird's Head languages|Nuclear South Bird's Head]
  18. Inanwatan–Duriankere
  19. Konda–Yahadian
  20. [Mantion–Meax languages|Nuclear East Bird's Head]
  21. Hatam–Mansim
  22. West Bird's Head
  23. Abun
  24. Mpur
  25. Maybrat
  26. Mor
  27. Tanah Merah
  28. Tor-Kwerba
  29. Lakes Plain
  30. Border
  31. Sko
  32. East Cenderawasih Bay
  33. Yam
  34. Komolom
  35. Yelmek-Maklew
  36. Eastern Pauwasi
  37. Western Pauwasi
  38. Nimboran
  39. Sentani
  40. Mairasi
  41. Kaure
  42. Lepki-Murkim
  43. Senagi
  44. Tofanma-Namla
  45. Yapen
  46. Abinomn
  47. Burmeso
  48. Elseng
  49. Kapauri
  50. Kembra
  51. Keuw
  52. Kimki
  53. Massep
  54. Mawes
  55. Molof
  56. Usku
  57. Yetfa
  58. Bayono-Awbono
  59. Dem
  60. ''Uhunduni''

    Sign languages

There are at least 2.5 million sign language users across the country, although official report only shows less than 50,000. Sign language users are often ridiculed and stigmatized.
Indonesian languages are generally not rendered in native-invented systems, but in scripts devised by speakers of other languages, that is, Tamil, Arabic, and Latin. Malay, for example, has a long history as a written language and has been rendered in Brahmic, Arabic, and Latin scripts. Javanese has been written in the Pallava script of South India, as well as their derivative, in an Arabic alphabet called pegon that incorporates Javanese sounds, and in the Latin script.
Chinese characters have never been used to write Indonesian languages, although Indonesian place-names, personal names, and names of trade goods appear in reports and histories written for China's imperial courts.

List of writing systems

The following texts are translations of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the languages of Indonesia.
  • English
  • Indonesian
  • Javanese
  • Sundanese
  • Minangkabau
  • Buginese
  • Balinese
  • Malay
  • Batak Toba
  • Madurese
  • Makassarese
  • Musi
  • Batak Simalungun
  • Acehnese
  • Tetum
  • Dawan
  • Batak Karo
  • Banjar
  • Lampung
  • Komering
  • Rejang
  • Bengkulu Malay

    Comparison chart

Below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. All of them except for Galela belong to the Austronesian language family. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as languages and which ones should be classified as dialects, the chart confirms that many have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. The languages are arranged geographically.
English translationsonetwothreefourwaterpersonhousedogcatcoconutdaynewwe, usI/meyouyesnowhatand
Indonesiansatuduatigaempatairorangrumahanjingkucingkelapaharibarukita/kamisaya/akuAnda/kamu/kauya/iyatidakapadan
Minangkabaucie'duotigoampe'aieurangrumahanjiangkuciangkarambiaharibaruawakdenai/amboawak/angiyoindakapojo
Palembang Malaysikokduotigoempatbanyuwongrumahanjingkucingkelapoaribarukitoaku/wongkabba/kamuiyodidoapodan
Betawiatu'duétigéempataérorangruméhanjingkucingkelapéaribarukitéane/gue/guaente/lu/loeiyekagakapéamé
Banjareseasaduataluampatbanyuurangrumahhadupanbatingasnyiurharihanyarkitaakukauwapawan
Kutainesesatuduetigeempatranamurangrumahkoyoknyiurhariberuetamapadengan
Manado Malaysatuduatigaampaaerorangrumaanjingkucingkalapaharibarutorangkita/sayangana/torangionda'apadeng
Ambonese Malaysatuduatigaampaairorangrumaanjingkucingkalapaharibarukatongkita/sayanganaiyosengapadeng
Acehnesesadualhèëpeuëtiëureuëngrumohasèëmiong / mieiuuroëbangeutanyoëlondroeneuhnyekeunpeuëngon
Niassaraduatöluöfaidanönihaomoasumaobanioluobohouya'itahadiaba
Toba Bataksadaduatoluopataekhalakjabubianghutingharambiriariibbaruhitaauhoolodaongahadohot
Mandailing Bataksadaduatoluopataekhalakbagasasuarambiraribaruhitaahadohot
Lampungsayʁuwateluampatwayjelemanuwaasukucingnyiwiʁaniampaiʁamapijama
Komeringosairuatoluopakuwayjolmalombahanasukucingnyiwiharaniompai/anyarram/kitaapiyarik
Rejang
doduaitlaupatbioatun
manusio		umêakkuyukkucingnioabilaiblauitêukucoajano, genngen, magêa
Sundanesehijiduatiluopatcai/cijalmaimahanjingucingkalapapoéanyarurangabdi/aingeta/anjeunenyahenteunaonjeung
Javanesesijilorotêlupapatbanyuuwòngomahasukucingkambìldinåanyar/énggaladhéwéakukoweiya/wisoraåpå/anulan
Maduresesettongdhuwa'tello'empa'âêngorengromapate'kochèngnyiorareanyarsengkokaulâhbe'naiyâphuntenapabèn
Balinesebesikdaduatelupapatyéhjadmaumahcicing/kulukméongnyuhrahinamarairagatiangraganenggihtenapamuah/lan
Sasaksa/seke'duetelumpataikdenganbaleacong/basongkenyamen/nyiohjelobaruiteapedait
Bimaicaduatoluupaoidouumalakongaoni'unaibounamiaulabo
Ngaju Dayakije'due'telu'epatdanumuluhhuma'asuposaenyuhandautahetaitahnaraituntang
Kenyah Dayakséduételewpatsungaikelunan / klunanlamin / uma'asewséangnyodaumaringmé' tew / teleuinewngan
Torajanmisadaʼduatalluaʼpaʼuaitaubanuaasuserreʼkalukuallomabarukitaakuikoiotaeʼapasisola
Mandarmesaʼdaʼduatalluappeʼwaitauboyangasuposaanjoroallobaruitayauiʼoapa
Bugineseseddiduatellueppawaétaubolaasumeongkalukuessoma-baruidiʼiyaʼikoieʼdéʼagasibawa
Makassareseseʼreruatalluappaʼjeʼneʼtauballaʼkongkongmiongkalukualloberuikatteinakkeikauio, ieʼtenaapasiagang
Mongondowtobatúdoyowatoḷuopattubigintaubaḷoiungkúpinggóbangósinggaimo-bagukitaonubo
Tolakio'asoo'ruoo'toluo'ombaiwoitoonolaikaodahukalukuoleowuohuinggitoohaworonga
Galelamoisinotosa'angeihaakenyawatahukasoigowangeḋamomuanengoneokiade
Biakoser/esersurukyorfyakwarsnon/kawasarumnaf/rofanpussrayrasbabokosama/kuker
Tetumidaruatoluhaatbeeemaumaasubusanuuloronfounamine'ebéno
Mandarin Chinese一 二 三 四 水 人 房子 狗 猫 椰子 天 新的 我们 我 你 是的 不 什么 和
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