Kon'e
The is a type of formal court robe traditionally worn by the Emperor of Japan. It corresponds to the Chinese gǔnfú, a ceremonial robe for emperors featuring dragon embroidery, used during major state rituals in ancient China. In Japan, the Kon'e was worn together with the during important court ceremonies such as the Sokui no rei and the.
In China, the robe was also known by the classical expression xuányī xūncháng, referring to its black upper garment and light red skirt. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e features red garments for both the upper and lower sections. A distinctive characteristic of the Japanese style is the way the mo —a mid-length ceremonial wrap skirt—is worn over the hakama, creating a uniquely Japanese configuration of lower-body garments.
The Kon'e remained in use until the enthronement of Emperor Kōmei in 1847. Beginning with Emperor Meiji, the official attire for enthronement ceremonies became the.
Overview
The term Kon'e is an abbreviation of Konryō no Gyoi, which means a "dragon-embroidered ceremonial robe". Originating in China, the Kon'e was a ceremonial robe adorned with dragon motifs. The Book of Songs mentions such a robe in the "Bin feng" section, describing King Cheng of Zhou wearing it to greet the Duke of Zhou.The Rites of Zhou, in the "Ministry of Spring" section, states: "When offering rites to former kings, wears the Kon'e and Benkan." A commentary adds that the character "Kon" specifically refers to garments embroidered with coiled dragons.
In Japan, the Kon'e became the emperor’s most formal court attire and was worn at ceremonies such as the enthronement ceremony and the. The outfit consisted of a wide-sleeved outer robe, an inner robe, and a pleated ceremonial skirt called. Both the ōsode and mo were embroidered with the twelve imperial insignia, known in Japanese as, a set of symbolic emblems representing imperial authority, including dragons. Until the enthronement of Emperor Kōmei, the Kon'e and Benkan were worn together in such rituals, and the complete ensemble was known as,, or.
The Chinese equivalent traditionally followed the xuányī xūncháng standard—featuring a black upper garment and a red lower one. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e was entirely red. One theory attributes this color scheme to early Sui dynasty practices described in the Book of Sui. However, the Japanese adoption of the Kon'e occurred during the Tang dynasty, whose legal clothing code retained the black-and-red configuration. Although Emperor Wen of Sui altered court dress for audiences to an all-red format, ceremonial robes such as the Kon'e remained unchanged.
Another theory links the red color to solar symbolism. The Japanese Benkan features a sun-shaped ornament not found in Chinese counterparts, possibly signifying the emperor’s status as “Son of the Sun.” From this perspective, the all-red color may have been chosen to represent the sun, aligning with Japan’s image as the “Land of the Rising Sun.”
History
Nara period (710–794)
According to the Shoku Nihongi, "On the first day of the first month in the fourth year of Tenpyō, the emperor received the New Year’s audience at the Daigokuden, wearing the Konben for the first time." Based on this record, it is considered that the emperor first wore the Kon'e and the Benkan in 732. However, it is thought that this did not yet include the full Kon'e adorned with the twelve imperial insignia.The "Edicts on Attire" within the Yōrō Code contain regulations for the attire of the Crown Prince and other officials, but none concerning the emperor’s dress. For instance, the Crown Prince's formal dress is specified as "ōni no koromo", a reddish-yellow robe, but the formal color of the emperor’s attire remains unknown.
At the Shōsōin repository, there remains a case labeled "Surviving Portions of Ornaments for Imperial Ceremonial Attire and Crowns", which is believed to contain fragments of the imperial ceremonial crowns worn by Emperor Shōmu and Empress Kōmyō. Inside the case is a wooden tag indicating that these items were their formal ceremonial robes. The reverse of the tag is inscribed with the date "April 9, 752", which corresponds to the date of the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha at Tōdaiji. It is therefore believed that these garments were worn on that occasion.
Although the garments themselves no longer survive, records of ceremonial airing are preserved in the Shōsōin documents. The Bakuryōshi-ge from 793 and the Kanmotsushi-ge from 811 describe Emperor Shōmu’s formal robe as a haku no awasehō, that is, a lined white silk robe.
White has long symbolized purity and freedom from defilement, and even today, the ceremonial robes worn by the Emperor of Japan during the Daijōsai and Niinamesai are pure white. It is therefore inferred that the ceremonial attire of emperors during the Nara period consisted of undecorated white garments, which were inherited in later forms such as the hakuginu and gosai-fuku.
According to the Shōsōin documents, the ceremonial ensemble of Emperor Shōmu consisted of the following items:
- robe
- inner garments
- undergarment
- short pleated overskirt
- pair of trousers
- wrapping cloths
In the Tang dynasty, the emperor's gǔnfú was composed of two distinct garments, following the traditional yi-shang system—yi, the upper garment, and shang, a skirt-like lower garment. In contrast, the Japanese imperial ceremonial attire consisted of three components: the upper robe, a pair of trousers, and a short pleated overskirt, reflecting a different development in the structure of court dress.
While Chinese court attire did not include skirt-like garments worn over trousers, Japanese formal dress—both for the emperor and civil officials—included hirami worn over hakama. The hirami, a short pleated overskirt, later came to be referred to as mo in the Heian period.
The use of hirami in Japanese court dress represents a continuous tradition dating back to the Asuka period, and was incorporated into the design of the Kon'e. Although inspired by Tang models, the Japanese formal costume developed its own distinctive structure for the lower body.
At the Shōsōin, a pair of shoes known as Nō-no-gorairi, believed to have been worn by Emperor Shōmu at the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha, are preserved today.
Heian period (794–1185)
The Kon'e was formally designated as the emperor’s ritual attire by an imperial edict issued in 820 by Emperor Saga. According to the Nihon Kiryaku, the edict stipulated that the emperor should wear the Hakuginu for Shinto rituals, the Konben Jūnishō for the imperial New Year’s audience, and the Kōrozen no gohō for various official events.The term Konben Jūnishō refers to the combination of the Benkan, which bears twelve hanging ornaments of beaded strings, and the Kon'e, which is embroidered with twelve symbolic motifs known as the Jūnishō.
An entry dated July 4, 1036 in the Doyūki, the diary of Minamoto no Morofusa, records the ritual known as Reifuku Goran, in which Emperor Go-Suzaku inspected the Konben Jūnishō that he would wear for his upcoming enthronement ceremony. This ritual involved removing the garments from storage in the Kuraryō for direct examination by the emperor.
According to the diary, the upper garment of the emperor’s attire was made of scarlet twill and described as “ōsode hi-iro aya”, meaning “wide-sleeved scarlet twill.” It was embroidered with eight symbolic motifs—sun, moon, mountain, flame, bird, dragon, tiger, and monkey—referred to collectively as the Jūnishō. The kosode and the mo were also scarlet and embroidered with patterns such as folding branches, axe shapes, and tomoe characters. The kosode was worn beneath the outer garment and was unembroidered. It corresponds to the ōshi of the Nara period.
Several distinctions can be observed between the Japanese Kon'e and the Chinese gǔnfú. While inspired by the Chinese prototype, Japan adopted red instead of white and added the Jūnishō embroidery. Aside from these features, the design largely continued the imperial attire of the Nara period. Scholars suggest that Japan’s interpretation of Tang customs was superficial, leading to a stylized form of “Tang-style” attire that reflected domestic adaptations more than faithful replication.
Initially, the Kon'e was worn exclusively for the New Year’s imperial audience, but it was later adopted for use in enthronement ceremonies as well. After the abolition of Chōga in 993, the Kon'e remained reserved for enthronement ceremonies until the late Edo period.
Kamakura period (1185–1333)
An entry dated March 3, 1288 in the Gofukakusa-in Gyoki records that Retired Emperor Go-Fukakusa inspected the ceremonial robes in preparation for the enthronement of his son, Emperor Fushimi.This passage indicates that the motifs embroidered on the ōsode matched those found on similar garments in the early modern period. While some of the patterns on the mo are difficult to interpret, the presence of futsu in the lower band makes it likely that two of the Twelve Ornaments were represented. Since only ten motifs are explicitly mentioned, scholars infer that all twelve were likely present but only partially described.
When Emperor Kōgon, the first emperor of the Northern Court, viewed the ceremonial attire prior to his enthronement, it was discovered that the garments had become damp due to damage to the storehouse of the Imperial Treasury. Consequently, the robes were temporarily kept at the residence of his father, Retired Emperor Go-Fushimi. At that time, Go-Fushimi ordered the imperial court painter Takashina Takatsugu to create detailed color illustrations of the robes, which are described in the Jōwa 5 Enthronement Record. It is said that the paintings faithfully reproduced even the colors of the actual garments.
Nanboku-chō (1336–1392) and Muromachi period (1336–1573)
This period encompasses both the Nanboku-chō period, when rival imperial courts coexisted, and the Muromachi period, under the Ashikaga shogunate.In 1333, during the conflicts that accompanied the fall of the Kamakura shogunate, all ceremonial robes for emperors, empresses regnant, young emperors, empresses consort, and crown princes were lost. On 28 December 1337, at the enthronement ceremony of Emperor Kōmyō, the second emperor of the Northern Court, all the garments used in the enthronement were newly made, according to the diary of Emperor Kōmyō. The emperor’s ceremonial robes were reconstructed almost in their original form, based on a drawing commissioned by Emperor Go-Fushimi. For the benkan, a crown designated for imperial use was taken out from the Shōsōin for reference and newly made.
At the enthronement of Emperor Sukō, the third emperor of the Northern Court, the robes created for Emperor Kōmyō were reused. Since Emperor Go-Komatsu, the 100th emperor, ascended the throne as a child, the Takakura family produced a smaller set of robes modeled on those of Emperor Kōmyō. This is noted in Shōzoku Zatsujishō by Takakura Nagayuki.
At the enthronement of Emperor Shōkō, the 101st emperor, a new set of robes was produced due to the "destruction of the imperial treasury by fire." The newly made items included a benkan, a red ōsode, a red kosode, a red mo, a pair of jade pendants, one ju, an ivory scepter, brocade socks, and court shoes, as recorded in the Shōkō-in Go-Sokui-ki.
At the time of Emperor Shōkō’s viewing of the ceremonial robes, there were two lacquered chests for garments and two crown boxes for the ceremonial headpieces, suggesting that two complete sets of enthronement attire were present. It is therefore believed that the set made for Emperor Kōmyō was the one destroyed in the fire, while the child-sized robes made for Emperor Go-Komatsu were spared.
During the Ōnin War, the emperor’s ceremonial robes were safely relocated to Mount Hiei. On 27 March 1474, the court noble Kanroji Chikanaga was dispatched to retrieve the "imperial ceremonial robes" from Mount Hiei, as recorded in the Chikanaga Kyōki.
However, since nearly all other items related to the enthronement ceremony, apart from the emperor’s ceremonial robes, were lost in the warfare, the enthronement of Emperor Go-Kashiwabara, the 104th emperor, was delayed for more than twenty years. During this interval, the emperor’s robes and benkan were repaired, and new ceremonial robes for the court nobles were prepared. The enthronement ceremony was finally held on 22 March 1521. The same robes were reused for the enthronement ceremonies of Emperor Go-Nara and Emperor Ōgimachi. At the time of Emperor Ōgimachi’s enthronement, both the benkan and the jade pendants required repairs, which were carried out by Buddhist sculptors, according to the Tokitsugu-kyōki.
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1600)
The enthronement ceremony of Emperor Go-Yōzei, the 107th emperor, held in 1586, was conducted with the support of the de facto ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and therefore benefited from greater financial resources compared to the preceding Sengoku period. However, while the emperor’s sokutai for summer and winter, as well as his ohiki-nōshi, were newly made, the ceremonial robes were not. It is presumed that the ceremonial robes produced during the reign of Emperor Shōkō were reused.Edo period (1603–1868)
It is generally believed that the study and practice of yūsoku kojitsu declined during the Sengoku period but were revived in the Edo period. The so-called “Kan’ei Yūsoku” of this era has sometimes been criticized as overly ornate or excessively focused on splendor.However, with regard to the kon’e, the design is believed to have been faithfully preserved from before the Sengoku period into the Edo period. This continuity is attributed to the existence of an illustrated reference of the robes commissioned by Emperor Go-Fushimi, as well as the evacuation of court robes to Mount Hiei during the Ōnin War.
At the enthronement ceremony of Emperor Go-Mizunoo, the 108th emperor, held in 1611, all types of robes required by the emperor were newly produced, exceeding even the new garments prepared under Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s donations. Components of the imperial ceremonial robes newly produced at that time included the ōsode, kosode, mo, and shitōzu, while the benkan and seki are believed to have been reused.
At the enthronement of Empress Meishō, the 109th monarch, held in 1630, a new ceremonial robe in the style of the jūnihitoe was prepared, as she was a reigning empress. The fabric was made of plain white karaaya silk, and, following precedent, the twelve imperial insignia were not applied.
At the enthronement of Emperor Go-Kōmyō, the 110th emperor, in 1643, a new kon’e was produced due to his young age at the time of enthronement. A surviving paper mock-up known as Raifuku-kata from this occasion is extant today. The decorative design painted on the paper mock-up is nearly identical to extant examples of actual kon’e.
Many of the existing ceremonial robes were lost in the 1653 fire at the imperial palace. However, during the viewing of the robes prior to the enthronement of Emperor Go-Sai in 1656, a set of “antique garments” was still present alongside newly prepared robes, leading to the theory that the kon’e used by Emperor Go-Kōmyō had survived.
At the Higashiyama Archive within the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the ceremonial robes worn by successive emperors since Emperor Go-Sai have been preserved. A survey of the collection conducted in 1912 was compiled as the Gofuku On-mokuoku, now held by the Archives and Mausolea Department of the Imperial Household Agency. However, the survey has been criticized for its inaccuracies, and it has been suggested that some garments predating Emperor Go-Sai, possibly even those of Emperor Go-Kōmyō, may have been misattributed.
In the 17th-century folding screen Illustration of the Enthronement of Emperor Reigen and Abdication of Emperor Go-Sai, Emperor Reigen is shown seated on the Takamikura, wearing a red kon’e and a benkan. It is unusual for the emperor’s face to be directly depicted in enthronement screen paintings.
The kon’e attributed to Emperor Reigen is believed to survive, albeit with the embroidery removed. However, the Gofuku On-mokuroku attributes this robe to Emperor Go-Sai, further underscoring the deficiencies in the catalog.
Additionally, red kon’e worn by Emperor Higashiyama and Emperor Kōmei are preserved at the Higashiyama Archive of the Kyoto Imperial Palace. On Emperor Higashiyama’s kon’e, the twelve imperial insignia were embroidered directly onto the fabric, whereas in Emperor Kōmei’s case, the insignia were embroidered on separate cloth pieces, which were then appliquéd onto the robe.
The embroidery was executed using colored and gold threads. Even when the motifs were the same, variations in color combinations and intricate details were applied to showcase refined craftsmanship.
Ceremonial Robes of Empress Regnants
There are no extant records in the Shōsōin documents regarding the ceremonial robes of empress regnants. However, according to the Doyūki, a ceremonial robe belonging to an empress regnant and stored in the Kuraryō is described as follows:“大袖、小袖、裙等皆白綾無繍文、小袖下縫付白羅、如男裳者也”
, inner robe, and skirt were all made of plain white figured silk without embroidery; a sheer white silk was sewn beneath the kosode in the manner of a man’s mo
This indicates that the upper garments, including the ōsode and kosode, as well as the lower garment, were all white, made of figured silk without embroidery, and did not feature the twelve symbolic motifs. The phrase “如男裳者也” implies that the sheer white silk sewn beneath the kosode was constructed in a manner similar to the male emperor’s mo. In contrast to the later jūnihitoe style, this robe likely retained the pleated hirami structure characteristic of ceremonial garments from the Nara period.
The empress regnant closest in time to the compilation of the Doyūki was Empress Kōken. Thus, it is considered likely that the described robe belonged to her. If so, this suggests that the ceremonial robes of empress regnants in the Nara period were also white in color.
Regarding the layering order of the skirt and the pleated hirami, since the kosode was worn over the kun, it is presumed that the pleated hirami was layered on top of the skirt in the case of an empress regnant.
Furthermore, the ceremonial robes worn by Empress Go-Sakuramachi, the 117th monarch and the only empress regnant of the Edo period, are preserved as imperial property in the Higashiyama Archive of the Kyoto Imperial Palace.
Ceremonial Robes of Child Emperors
According to the Doyūki, the ceremonial robes of child emperors are described as follows: “The ōsode, kosode, and mo were the same in color and embroidery as above.” This indicates that the outer robe, inner robe, and skirt panel were all red, just like those of adult emperors, and were adorned with embroidered motifs of the twelve imperial insignia.Composition
The following is the standard composition of the full ceremonial attire of an adult emperor, including the kon'e:Benkan : The emperor’s exclusive crown, decorated with sun emblems and pendant tassels. See the article on Benkan for details.Ōsode : A red outer robe with an open-front draped collar and wide sleeves. Eight of the twelve imperial insignia are arranged on this robe. It was originally white.Kosode : A red inner robe with a round-neck collar and straight tubular sleeves. No embroidery is present.Mo : A red pleated wrap skirt. Four of the twelve imperial insignia are arranged on it. Worn over the hakama. It was originally called hirami.Hakama : White outer trousers.Shaku : A scepter made of ivory.Ju : A white braided cord sash.Gyokuhai : Jade pendants worn at the waist. Vassals wore one, but the emperor wore two.Shitōzu : Socks made of brocade. Unlike modern tabi, they are bag-shaped with a rounded toe.Seki no kutsu : Red leather shoes. After the Heian period, black ones were also used.As described above, the composition of the emperor's ceremonial attire is thought to have remained largely unchanged from the Heian period through the Sengoku period. However, some details did vary.
In Japan, the term ju refers to a white sash, but in China, it denoted a type of apron hanging from the waist. From the mid-Heian period onward, short sashes were customarily suspended in one or two strands from the waist.
As for the seki, both red and black variants were used depending on the period, and it remains unclear which was originally standard. The pair believed to have belonged to Emperor Shōmu and stored in the Shōsōin are red. Two types of shitōzu also existed: red-based and white-based.
Twelve Imperial Insignia (''Jūnishō'')
;ŌsodeEight of the twelve imperial insignia —sun, moon, stars, mountain, dragon, fire, pheasant, and sōi—are embroidered on the red ōsode. Each motif is expressed through embroidery. At the enthronement of Emperor Kōmyō in 1337, the motifs were embroidered onto separate silk pieces and then applied to the garment. In relics from the early modern period, the robe belonging to Emperor Higashiyama has the motifs directly embroidered on the fabric, while that of Emperor Kōmei features the motifs embroidered on separate patches that were sewn onto the garment.Sun : Placed on the left shoulder, depicting a three-legged crow within a solar disc.Moon : Placed on the right shoulder, showing a laurel branch in a vase inside a lunar disc, flanked by a rabbit and a toad.Seven Stars : Representing the Big Dipper, placed on the upper back.Mountain : Positioned on the front and back of the body of the robe.Dragon : Large coiled dragons on the front and back of the sleeves; smaller dragons on the front and back of the body of the robe.Flame : Flame motifs.Pheasant : A stylized design symbolizing a pheasant, positioned on the front and back of the torso.Sōi : A symbolic design originating from ritual bronze vessels, typically depicting a tiger and monkey.
;Mo
The mo shares the same red ground as the ōsode and is embroidered with the remaining four motifs of the twelve imperial insignia:
seaweed, rice grains, fu, and Futsu.
Differences between Japanese and Tang Chinese Konben Attire
There are several differences between the Japanese konben—a combination of the kon’e and benkan —and its Chinese counterpart.- In Tang China, the upper robe was black and the skirt was reddish, whereas in Japan, both garments were entirely red.
- In China, the motifs were expressed through woven patterns, while in Japan, they were embroidered.
- In China, the undergarment was a sheer white silk called baisha zhongdan, whereas in Japan, a plain red kosode was used.
- In the Tang dynasty, the ju was a broad ornamental panel suspended from the waist, draping over the back of the skirt, unlike in Japan, where it functioned as a decorative cord belt tied around the waist. Moreover, Japanese imperial robes do not include elements such as the large belt, auxiliary belt, or leather belt found in Tang attire.
- Japanese kon’e did not include a front apron known as a bìxī.
- Japanese kon’e included hirami, which Chinese ceremonial robes did not.
- Japanese kon’e included hakama, which were not found in Chinese gǔnfú.
- Japanese kon’e did not include a ceremonial sword.
- The Japanese benkan lacked tǒukàng chōng’ěr, instead featuring a decorative “sun disc”.
- The ryū on Japanese crowns were composed of yōraku and multicolored jewels or beads, whereas in Tang China, they consisted of uniform white beads strung together on cords.