Kenkoku University


Kenkoku Daigaku or simply Kendai was an educational institution which was short-lived in Hsinking, the capital of Manchukuo, the Japanese puppet state in occupied Manchuria during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It operated from May 1938 to August 7, 1945.

Etymology

The name of this academy means "Nation Building University" or "National Foundation University". It originated from the period of Northern Zhou.

History

Kenkoku Tai

The Kenkoku Society was a Japanese secret society founded in April 1926. It was formed by the Nazi sympathizer Takabatake Motoyuki along with Nagoya Anarchists Uesugi Shinkichi and Akao Bin. It proclaimed its object to be "the creation of a genuine people's state based on unanimity between the people and the emperor". At its height, the organization reached a nationwide membership of around 120,000.
Its state socialist program included the demand for "the state control of the life of the people in order that among Japanese people there should not be a single unfortunate nor unfully-franchised individual". The organisation embraced Panasianism declaring "The Japanese people standing at the head of the colored people, will bring the world a new civilization". It was at one time in favor of universal suffrage.
The Kenkoku Society worked in close concert with the police to break the miners strike in Tochigi, and other strikes by factory workers in Kanegafuchi, tramway workers in Tokyo, and tenant farmers in Gifu Prefecture. Uesugi soon withdrew in 1927, and Takabatake supporters left following his death in 1928. This left the organization with only around 10,000 members. Mitsuru Toyama of the Black Dragon Society was appointed honorary chairperson, and Nagata, a former Police Chief, vice-chair. Others of this new influx included Ikihara, Kida, and Sugimoto. Akao was director of the league, which organized gangs of strike breakers and in 1928 bombed the Soviet embassy. Their paper Nipponshugi was virulently anti-communist with slogans such as "Death to Communism, to Russian Bolshevism, and to the Left parties and workers' unions".

Kenkoku Daigaku

Kanto-kun invaded Manchuria on 18 September 1931, immediately following the Mukden Incident. At the war's end in February 1932, the Japanese established the puppet state of Manchukuo. Because sheared off from China by the Kanto-kun in March 1932 and declared an independent country, Manchukuo existed as a client state of Japan on the margins of the international order, recognized by a handful of nations. A pro-Japanese government was installed one year later with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, serving first as nominal regent, and later as the first emperor. Restoration of Puyi to the throne of his Manchu ancestors provided one such symbol, and emphasized Japan's stance in favor of tradition over communism and republicanism, and had tremendous propaganda value.
Although the Kanto-kun was nominally subordinate to the Imperial General Headquarters and the senior staff at the Army General Staff located in Tokyo, its leadership often acted in direct violation of the orders from mainland Japan without suffering any consequence. Conspirators within the junior officer corps of the Kanto-kun plotted and carried out the assassination of Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin in the Huanggutun Incident of 1928. Afterward, the Kanto-kun leadership engineered the Mukden Incident and the subsequent invasion of Manchuria in 1931, in a massive act of insubordination against the express orders of the political and military leadership based in Tokyo. Presented with the fait accompli, Imperial General Headquarters had little choice but to follow up on the actions of the Kanto-kun with reinforcements in the subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo. The success of the campaign meant that the insubordination of the Kanto-kun was rewarded rather than punished. In 1932, the Kwantung Army was the main force responsible for the foundation of Manchukuo, the puppet state of Japan located in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia. The Kanto-kun played a controlling role in the political administration of the new state as well as in its defense. With the Kwantung Army, administering all aspects of the politics and economic development of the new state, this made the Kwantung Army's commanding officer equivalent to a Governor-General with the authority to approve or countermand any command from Puyi, the nominal Emperor of Manchukuo. As testament to the Kwantung Army's control over the government of Manchukuo, the Commander-in-Chief of the Kwantung Army also served as the Japanese Ambassador of Manchukuo.
From early 1934, the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, 680,000 Koreans, and 98,431 of other nationality: White Russians, Mongols, some Europeans. Around 80% of the population was rural. During the existence of Manchukuo, the ethnic balance did not change significantly, except that Japan increased the Korean population in China. From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Longjiang, Rehe, Jilin, Fengtian, and Xing'an provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period estimated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. The majority of Han Chinese in Manchukuo believed that Manchuria was rightfully part of China, who both passively and violently resisted Japan's propaganda that Manchukuo was a "multinational state". Besides, the South Manchuria Railway Zone and the Korean Peninsula had been under the control of the Japanese Empire since the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Japan's ongoing industrialization and militarization ensured their growing dependence on oil and metal imports from the US. The US sanctions which prevented trade with the United States resulted in Japan furthering its expansion in the territory of China and Southeast Asia. The invasion of Manchuria, or the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 7 July 1937, are sometimes cited as alternative starting dates for World War II, in contrast with the more commonly accepted date of September 1, 1939.
In May 1938, Kenkoku University was founded by an edict of General Kanji Ishiwara in capital Hsinking as the Supreme School of Manchuria, and was run by Professor Sakata Shoichi from Kyoto University. Its purpose was to promote "ethnic harmony" in the region, legitimising and promoting the Japanese occupation. To this end, students were recruited from Japan, China proper, Mongolia, Taiwan, Manchuria, Korea and Soviet Union. As well as offering free tuition, the university also provided its students with board and lodgings, and a stipend. They were gathered at Kenkoku University under the idea of "Five Races Under One Union" to nurture future leaders in Manchuria. Emphasis was placed on "five races equality" and "academic freedom", and the students slept and ate together in the dormitory, creating bonds that transcend ethnic groups. However, contrary to the original intention of the Japanese authorities, it turned out that Kenkoku was the incubator for a generation of capable Asian leaders who contributed significantly to shaping East Asian identity after World War II. Multiple students of Kenkoku University later became prominent political figures in South Korea—including later South Korean prime minister Kang Young-hoon—, North Korea and China. A number of influential aikido practitioners trained and taught at the university, including aikido's founder Morihei Ueshiba, Kenji Tomiki, Shigenobu Okumura and Noriaki Inoue. In general, students from Japan, China, Korea, the Soviet Union and Mongolia learned at Kenkoku University under the banner of "the harmony of five ethnicities", and sometimes-surprising friendships were forged at the Japan-run institution, even as imperial Japanese troops brutalised much of the region.
Over 1,000 applicants for 25 selections: Unprecedented competition rate in recruiting Korean students to Manchurian University. In the fall of 1937, fierce competition for entrance exams took place. Even the Sino-Japanese War that began in the summer could not quell the heat. The goal was the newly established Kenkoku University in Manchuria. This university, which was to be established in May 1938 in Hsinking, the capital of Manchukuo at the time, was scheduled to select a total of 150 students from six ethnic groups, including Korea, Japan, Manchuria, Taiwan, Mongolia and Russia. Applications for new students recruited in Korea closed on October 20. In Gyeongseong alone, 155 Koreans and 140 Japanese gathered.
The first test for applicants within Korea was held at Gyeongseong Women's Normal School in Susong-dong for three days starting on December 27. It was unusual that the physical examination was the first. He said : "If you want to work in Manchuria, you must first be physically healthy, so consider your health first". Of the 670 applicants, 90 were selected. The competition rate was 7.4 to 1.
Early the following year, I took the second exam in Gyeongju. Korean test takers were paid full transportation and lodging expenses to and from the test site. He received unprecedented treatment. The second test was an interview. The interview time was divided into three fields: Humanities and social sciences, natural sciences, and general knowledge and personality, and 15 to 20 minutes of interview time was allocated to each field. The final successful candidates were announced in March 1938. Among the applicants from Korea, only 11 were successful.
The competition to enter Kenkoku University was fierce the following year. The Government General's Academic Affairs Bureau recommended 83 students for the second entrance exam in 1939. There were 57 Koreans and 26 Japanese. The final number of successful applicants was 13, similar to the previous year. There were 9 Koreans and 4 Japanese. The characteristic of the second entrance exam was that there were 5 persons from Gyeonggi province. One Japanese person each came from Gwangju, Daegu, Wonsan, and Busan middle schools.
  • Free tuition and dormitory fees : Up to 5 wons monthly allowance.
  • There are 91 Korean students admitted : 7% of all students.
  • The Hwang Min-hwa movement is so severe that it goes to Manchuria.
  • Emphasis on military and martial arts training : Participated in the establishment and development of the Korean military after liberation.
  • Plan to recruit professors such as Lev Trotsky, Mahatma Gandhi and Pearl Buck.
The university closed on August 7, 1945, when the Kanto-kun were defeated by Soviet Red Army. Chinese graduates of Kenkoku University were taken to Sibir or met a miserable end during the Cultural Revolution, but Koreans returned to Korea and adapted well. Some of them contributed to the establishment of universities named after North Korean leaders. Some of them joined the Joseon Political Science Building, the predecessor of what is now Konkuk University. The campus is said to have become the basis for the establishment of Changchun University.

Education

Elites

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;Students
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Curriculum

According to the important research article by PhD. Ernest Ming-tak Leung from The Chinese University of Hong Kong, the key elements that make up the legacy of Kenkoku University are the Japanese Marxists who were expelled from their homeland after 1930. It was they who, through their teachings in Kenkoku, promoted an ideology that was not welcome in their homeland. This work accidentally created a notable contemporary socio-political phenomenon, that is the Manchukuo Marxism. Yuka Hiruma-Kishida reported more clearly that, for the first time in the world history, in a place that few people pay attention to like Manchuria, the combination of ancient East Asian political thought was planted with completely new social liberalization trends.
The conservative Kenkoku persons favored Mencius' ōdō ideology, while the younger group belonged to the marxist movement, eventually "making peace" with a new ideology, called as Panasianism or simply "Mingoku Kyōwa Shisō". In fact what happened during the Cold War and in the years that followed proved that Asian society essentially followed this form of ideology. It is both very seriously traditional and not out of step with ideologies originating from the Western world.

Influences

During the Cold War era, former professors and students of Kenkoku University made great contributions to the evolution of the whole East Asia region. However, at this time, because of the complicated political situation, they hardly had any official contact.
After the Cultural Revolution in China proper ended, a delegation of many Chinese alumni under the "support" of Jiang Zemin went to Tokyo to connect with Japanese alumni. This event not only helped People's Republic of China receive huge aid from Japan to promote economic reform|economic reform], but also opened a whole new chapter for Kenkoku University alumni.
In 1989, the Manchurian Studies Association or Kenkoku-Daigaku Alumni Association with a core of Chinese and Japanese alumni was established. This is both a friendship organization and also a force to expand the influence of Asia's largest economies. However, from then until 2023, this organization only operates in the field of economic and sometimes cultural cooperation, not allowed to attend any political or military events.
The most important event for the Alumni Association was supporting the establishment of Changchun University. Initially, the name chosen was "construction", but because the Chinese government considered it "politically sensitive", that idea failed.
In the decades after World War II, in general and basically, the legacies of Kenkoku University were completely forgotten due to overlapping conflicts in a turbulent Asia. There is a paradox that, although the students of this academy participated in all the important political forces of the region and even accidentally became enemies of each other, no one mentioned their "master". This connection only began to be revived by scholars in the late 2010s, when the last generation of students was old and all political conflicts were no longer there.
November 15, 2020, TV Asahi aired a documentary titled Telementary 2020 - Vanished University - Manchuria's Phantom Dream. From the reporter, whose deceased grandfather was a graduate of Kenkoku University, was trying to uncover more information about it. The film immediately won the public's sympathy, with some netizens even saying that it not only restores a heroic period of history that the Japanese have tried to bury for many years, but also restores people's confidence many individuals to overcome the COVID-19 pandemic. Even in Vietnam, a country with very little connection to what happened in Manchuria decades earlier, Kenkoku University and its legacy have become a hot topic of debate on youth forums.