Kadi Burhan al-Din
Kadi Ahmad Burhan al-Din poet, scholar, and statesman. He was vizier to the Eretnid rulers of Anatolia. In 1381, he took over Eretnid lands and claimed the title of sultan for himself. He is most often referred to by the title Qadi, a name for Islamic judges, which was his first occupation.
To maintain the independence of his principality, he fought against the Ottomans, Mamluks, Karamanids, and Aq Qoyunlu for 18 years. He composed poetry in a Turkic language close to modern Azerbaijani Turkic. In addition to his poems in Turkic, he also wrote in Persian and Arabic and conducted studies on Islamic law. His divan is regarded as the first divan written in the Turkic language. He is considered one of the founders of modern Azerbaijani and Turkish literature, playing a significant role in the development of poetry in the Azerbaijani Turkic language.
On May 7, 2019, by Decision No. 211 of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Qadi Burhan al-Din was included in the list of authors whose works are declared state property in the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Early life and education
The first ancestor of Burhan al-Din who migrated to Anatolia was a Khwarezmian named Muhammad Rasul Sevinc. He belonged to the Salur tribe of the Oghuz Turks. Aziz al-Astarabadi records Burhan al-Din's lineage as follows: Shams al-Din Muhammad, son of Suleyman Siraj al-Din, son of Husam al-Din, son of Jalal al-Din Habib, son of Muhammad, son of Rasul, son of Sevinc. Burhan al-Din's great-grandfather was born around the 1290s in the Kastamonu region. He gained recognition from the qadi of Kayseri, who arranged his marriage to his daughter, which subsequently earned him an official position. According to Aziz al-Astarabadi, many of his descendants also served as qadis. Thus, Burhan al-Din's family upheld the position of qadi for generations. A. Krymsky described Burhan al-Din as "the son, grandson, great-grandson, and great-great-grandson of a qadi." Additionally, Burhan al-Din’s great-grandfather married a woman from the Seljuk dynasty, and his son Suleyman Siraj al-Din became a highly respected figure. As a result, Suleyman married the daughter of the last Sultan of the Seljuks of Konya. His son, Shams al-Din Muhammad, adhered to family tradition and served as a qadi in Kayseri. Ibn Arabshah, while writing about the rulers of the Eretnids, also mentioned Burhan al-Din's father, noting that he was one of the viziers of the Eretnid ruler and described him as the most powerful among them.Burhan al-Din was born on the 3rd of Ramadan, corresponding to January 8, 1345. His mother came from a noble family and was related to Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw of the Seljuks. Burhan al-Din’s maternal grandfather, Abdullah Chalabi, was a vizier and the son of the prominent Seljuk bureaucrat Jalal al-Din Mahmud Mustawfi. According to Abdullah ibn Ali Kashani, the author of "Tarikh-e Olcaytu", Burhan al-Din’s mother was also the sister of the Eretnid ruler. She died when Burhan al-Din was only one and a half years old. As a result, he was raised and educated under the guidance of his father. In his youth, Burhan al-Din mastered Persian and Arabic, as well as disciplines such as Islamic law, logic, horsemanship, swordsmanship, and archery.
In 1356, Burhan al-Din accompanied his father to Damascus for educational purposes. Two years later, they traveled to Cairo. Historians believe this journey may have been prompted by political reasons, possibly due to his father's exile or forced departure from Kayseri. In Cairo, Burhan al-Din studied jurisprudence, hadith, and Quranic exegesis. Later, in 1362, he returned to Damascus to study poetry under Qutb al-Din al-Razi for a year and a half. After the death of Qutb al-Din in 1364, Burhan al-Din's father also died shortly thereafter. Following the deaths of his father and teacher, Burhan al-Din returned to his hometown.
After his return to Kayseri in 1364, the Eretnid ruler Muhammad Bey appointed him as qadi and arranged his marriage to his daughter. In 1365, Muhammad Bey died under unclear circumstances. Some speculate he was killed during a campaign to suppress rebellions in Amasya, Milas, or Karahisar. Others suggest he may have been assassinated due to political conflicts. Burhan al-Din's role in these events remains unknown. The renowned Scottish orientalist E. Gibb, citing Ibn Hajar, notes that Burhan al-Din married the ruler's daughter, but their relationship eventually soured, leading Burhan al-Din to kill his father-in-law and seize power.
At the time of Muhammad Bey’s death, his son Alaeddin Ali was only 13 years old and thus incapable of governing effectively. Taking advantage of the ensuing instability, the Karamanids captured Niğde and Aksaray. In 1375, Alaeddin Bey of the Karamanids seized Kayseri, forcing Alaeddin Ali to flee to Sivas. In 1378, Burhan al-Din reclaimed Kayseri and expelled Alaeddin Karamanid. Consequently, Alaeddin Ali appointed Burhan al-Din as his vizier. However, Burhan al-Din’s aspirations for power created tensions between them. Burhan al-Din ultimately emerged victorious in this struggle, consolidating both military and political control. His authority was solidified when he was granted the title of beylerbeyi or malik al-umara, titles previously used during the Seljuk era.
During his tenure as vizier, Burhan al-Din implemented measures to stabilize the region. A conflict arose between Burhan al-Din and Emir Haji Shadgeldi over the control of Amasya, which the latter had seized from Alaeddin Eretnid. In 1380, Alaeddin Ali succumbed to the plague in Kazabad. At the time of his death, his son was only seven years old. Although a public assembly urged Burhan al-Din to govern the state as regent, he declined. Consequently, the regency was entrusted to Kılıç Arslan, who was from the Seljuk dynasty and had married Alaeddin Ali’s widow. However, this decision caused widespread discontent, as many believed Burhan al-Din was better suited for leadership. Alarmed by Burhan al-Din’s growing influence, Kılıç Arslan plotted to eliminate him. However, Burhan al-Din acted first, killing Kılıç Arslan on February 19, 1381. Following this event, the public assembly once again supported Burhan al-Din, and he assumed the regency. Later that year, Burhan al-Din defeated his main rival, Haji Shadgeldi of Amasya, and declared his sovereignty in Sivas. After delivering a khutbah in his name, he sent envoys to rulers across Anatolia, Syria, and Iraq to announce his ascension to power.
Historical Context
In the early 14th century, the Anatolian Seljuks, centered in Konya, fell under the pressure of the Ilkhanate. Following their collapse, various beyliks emerged in their place. In 1335, Eretna Bey, one of the Ilkhanid governors in Anatolia, declared his independence. However, he temporarily accepted vassalage to the Mamluk Sultan. The initial capital of the Eretnid Beylik was Erzincan, later moving to Kayseri. During this period, the newly formed beyliks frequently engaged in conflicts with one another over territorial disputes. The Eretnid Beylik was governed by Eretna Bey's descendants until 1381, when Qadi Burhan al-Din declared himself an independent ruler.Rise to power
Although he was favored by the sultan, Burhan al-Din secretly participated in the rebellion of the local magnates which led to Ghiyath al-Din's killing in 1365. Burhan al-Din's popularity spread as he was serving as the of Kayseri, bolstering his political strength. He built strong personal relations, especially with local nomadic tribes. By 1376, he had become a military commander with significant power in a realm that was facing political turmoil. The previous year, Karamanids captured Kayseri in a surprise attack with the help of the Mongol tribes of Samargar and Chaykazan, prompting Ala al-Din Ali to flee to Sivas. Burhan al-Din tried to fend off the Karamanids with the hopes that he could claim Kayseri for himself. He wasn't successful, getting arrested when Ali uncovered his true intentions. The Emir of Sivas, Hajji Ibrahim, who allied with the leader of Samargar, Khidr Beg, rescued Burhan al-Din and imprisoned Ali instead. Ali was eventually liberated by Burhan al-Din in 1378. In June of that year, Burhan al-Din was made vizier by Eretnid emirs in order to prevent a possible revolt of peasants disgruntled by Ali's incompetence.Reign
Referring to Sa'd al-Din Efendi, Gibb mentions that Burhan al-Din captured Sivas and Kayseri and ruled for 20–30 years. However, this is an exaggeration. Based on information from sources, it becomes evident that Burhan al-Din ruled for either 17 or 18 years. His years of rule were marked by continuous conflicts with rebellious local rulers as well as struggles against powerful states such as the Ottomans, Mamluks, and Aq Qoyunlus.In 1381, after murdering the of the ruler of Eretna, he formally proclaimed himself the ruler, initially using the title atabeg and later sultan. He issued his own coins and had the khuṭba delivered in his name. He was continuously involved in skirmishes with neighboring states. He gained many enemies with his rise to power, including the Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire, Aq Qoyunlu, Qara Qoyunlu, Karamanids, and local emirs, such as those of Amasya and Erzincan, one of whom, Mutahharten, was a worthy rival. To reduce the number of his opponents, Burhan al-Din pardoned many of whom he had defeated. He followed no set principle but only the benefit of his political existence in forging relations with neighboring powers. The sultanate Burhan al-Din usurped had a large Turkmen and Mongol population but also consisted of many of the older, established urban centers of the Seljuk and Ilkhanid Anatolia. His sultanate resembled these states more than the Turcoman beyliks.
In 1383, Burhan al-Din survived an assassination attempt by some local beys in Sivas. To avenge his father, Haji Shadgeldi, he received support from his father-in-law, Candaroglu Kötürüm Bayezid, and defeated Burhan al-Din, who had taken action against him. Subsequently, by collaborating with the Beylik of Dulkadir and forming regular military units, he brought the Turcomans in the region stretching from Sivas to the Mediterranean under his control. After eliminating the threats posed by the Turcomans and Mongols, he married off his sister to the lord of Tokat Fortress, and with their support, launched a campaign against Amasya, defeating its rulers consecutively.
Candaroglu Kötürüm Bayezid, aware of a potential Ottoman campaign led by Sultan Murad I against them, sent a message to Burhan al-Din, expressing his desire for an alliance. However, when his insincerity was realized, he not only lost the support of Burhan al-Din, a strong ally, but also his throne. Around the same time, the governor of Tokat Fortress came to Sivas to pledge allegiance to Burhan al-Din. In 1387, while Burhan al-Din was in Kösedağ, he learned that the people of Sivas had revolted. He dispatched one of his commanders, who successfully suppressed the uprising.
Burhan al-Din skillfully exploited the conflicting claims of the local rulers in his vicinity, supporting one against the other. He also strengthened his army by recruiting men from the nomadic Turkcoman and Mongol tribes. He successfully restored the former borders of his beylik but faced conflicts with the Mamluks after capturing Malatya, as it was traditionally considered within the Mamluk sphere of influence. According to Ibn Hajar, in response to the capture of Malatya, a large Mamluk army was dispatched against him. Acting in alliance with some Anatolian rulers, the Mamluk army laid siege to Sivas for several months in 1388 but failed to defeat Burhan al-Din. Subsequently, Sultan Barquq of the Mamluks was forced to sign a peace treaty with him.
In 1389, Ottoman Sultan Murad I was killed in the Battle of Kosovo. His successor, Bayezid I, immediately headed to Bursa, as the vassal rulers in Anatolia had risen in rebellion. The coalition against the Ottomans included the beyliks of Karaman, Aydın, Saruhan, Menteşe, Germiyan, and Hamid. The coalition leaders were Karamanoglu Alaeddin and Burhan al-Din. Alaeddin occupied Beyşehir and advanced as far as Eskişehir, Germiyanoglu Yakub II reclaimed his territories, while Burhan al-Din captured Kırşehir. In May 1390, Bayezid, preparing for a campaign against the Karamanids in Afyonkarahisar, recaptured Beyşehir and laid siege to Konya. Meanwhile, Süleyman Bey of the Candarids returned to Kastamonu and formed an alliance with Burhan al-Din to assist the Karamanids. This threat seemingly forced Bayezid to lift the siege of Konya and sign a peace treaty with the Karamanids. In 1391/92, Bayezid targeted Süleyman Bey, but Burhan al-Din intervened to support his ally. On April 6, 1392, a Venetian report noted that Byzantine Emperor Manuel II, as an Ottoman vassal, was preparing to join a naval expedition against Sinop. This campaign resulted in the annexation of most Candarid territories, except Sinop. Süleyman Bey was killed. Later, despite Burhan al-Din's objections and threats, Bayezid occupied Osmancık. However, Burhan al-Din eventually launched an attack against Bayezid near Çorumlu, forcing him to retreat. Burhan al-Din advanced as far as Ankara and Sivrihisar. Ahmed, the emir of Amasya, besieged by Burhan al-Din’s forces, sought Ottoman assistance and handed over his fortress to the Ottomans. This incident is also mentioned in the memoirs of the captive soldier Schiltberger, who was in Bayezid’s service.
In 1391/92, the Battle of Kırkdilim took place. Burhan al-Din’s court poet, Aziz ibn Ardashir, claims that Burhan al-Din emerged victorious in this battle. However, letters from Manuel II Paleologus, who participated in the campaign as Bayezid’s vassal, suggest otherwise. The local rulers recognized Bayezid as their overlord, but as the army retreated, they were attacked by Burhan al-Din’s forces.
Burhan al-Dīn was defeated by the Mamluks in 1387 but soon allied with them against the Aq Qoyunlu, only to later ally with the latter against rebellions of the beys of Amasya and Erzincan.
In 1393, the rulers of the Tacettinids, Tashanids, and Bafra pledged allegiance to Burhan al-Din. That same year, Mongol rulers in Anatolia encouraged him to attack the Ottomans, but his advisors rejected this proposal. Concerned about Ottoman dominance over the Yeşilırmak basin, Burhan al-Din took measures to counter this and encouraged the Ottomans to move southward. By 1393, Burhan al-Din’s state had become the strongest rival to the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia. Consequently, the Anatolian emirates divided into two factions: one supporting Burhan al-Din and the other supporting the Ottomans. That same year, Bayezid launched several campaigns against him, capturing some fortresses and cities. In 1394, Burhan al-Din campaigned against the Karamanids. During this time, the Anatolian rulers received a letter from Timur, who had captured Tikrit in 1394, demanding their submission.
Burhan al-Din executed the envoys who came to him with this letter. Sources indicate that he beheaded some of Timur’s envoys, hung their heads around the necks of the survivors, and sent them back to their lands. When Burhan al-Din rejected Timur's letter, he sent a copy of it to the Mamluk Sultan Barquq and Bayezid I. Thus, the alliance between him and the Mamluk Sultan also included the Ottoman Sultan and the Golden Horde Khan, Tokhtamysh. To disrupt this alliance, Timur set out and entered Anatolia in early 1394, reaching Erzurum. However, he suddenly decided to turn back from Erzurum. When the threat of Timur subsided for a while, Qadi Burhan al-Din launched a campaign against Ahmad Bey, the Emir of Amasya, who had attacked his lands, and devastated the region. Timur was aware of Qadi Burhan al-Din's activities against him. Taking advantage of this, Alaeddin Bey of the Karamanids declared his allegiance to Timur and became his ally. Thus, Burhan al-Din, the ruler of Sivas, found himself caught between two enemies. Consequently, in 1397, he sought assistance from his former adversary, the Mamluk Sultan, offering to become a Mamluk vassal in return. At the same time, he needed support to counter the advancing Aq Qoyunlu ruler, Kara Yuluk Osman Bey. Timur was aware of Qadi Burhan al-Din's activities against him. Timur, in a letter to Bayezid, also mentioned Burhan al-Din’s alliance with the Mamluk Sultan, his former enemy. In his letter to Bayezid I, Timur also mentioned Burhan al-Din and his alliance with his former enemy, the Mamluk Sultan:
The wretched son of the judge of Sivas devises devilish schemes and seeks to cooperate with the Circassian youth.
However, it is evident from one of Qadi Burhan al-Din's poems that he did not care for these threats and was not afraid of Timur:
When Sham and Rum submit to us,
We are iron for the enemy, mildly for our friends.
Brave men tread our paths;
For friends, we are a blessing; for foes, a doom.
With the help of Barquq, Burhan al-Din was able to overcome his enemies. Later, Burhan al-Din formed an alliance with Qara Yuluk Osman Bey of the Aq Qoyunlu and conducted campaigns against rebellious emirs in Amasya and Erzincan.
However, it is apparent from his poems that Burhan al-Din did not hold Tokhtamysh Khan in high regard, but due to their common enemy, Timur, he entered into an alliance with him:
Whatever God has decreed from the beginning shall happen;
The eye sees only what it is destined to see.
In both worlds, we have sought refuge in God.
What is Tokhtamysh, or even Aksak Timur?