History of German foreign policy
The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871.
Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. The unification of Germany was made possible by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller states joined behind Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was put together in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.
The new German Empire immediately became the dominant diplomatic, political, military and economic force in Continental Europe, although it never had as large a population as the Russian Empire. The Great Britain continued to dominate the world in naval affairs, international trade, and finance. The Germans tried to catch up in empire building but felt an inferiority complex. Bismarck felt a strong need to keep France isolated, lest its desire for revenge frustrate his goals, which after 1871 were European peace and stability. When Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Bismarck in 1890, German foreign policy became erratic and increasingly isolated, with only Austria-Hungary as a serious ally and partner.
During the July Crisis, Germany played a major role in starting World War I in 1914. The Allies defeated Germany in 1918. The Versailles Peace Treaty was punishing for the new Weimar Republic.
By the mid-1920s, Germany had largely recovered its role as a great power thanks to astute diplomacy on its own part, the willingness of the British and Americans compromise, and financial aid from New York. Internal German politics became frenzied after 1929 and the impact of the Great Depression, leading to a takeover by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in 1933. They introduced a highly aggressive foreign policy in alliance with Italy and Japan. The British and French tried to appease in 1938, which only whetted Hitler's hunger for more territory, especially in the East. Nazi Germany had by far the most decisive role in starting World War II in 1939.
Since 1945, Germany has recovered from massive wartime destruction to become again the richest and most powerful country in Europe, this time it is fully integrated into European affairs. Its major conflict was West Germany versus East Germany, with East Germany being a client state of the Soviet Union until the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the 1970s, Germany has also sought to play a more important role internationally again. After the collapse of Communism in 1989-1991, East Germany was merged into Germany, and Berlin became the capital of the united country. NATO expanded to include the former East Germany and also most of the East European countries that had been satellites of the USSR. Relations with Russia worsened after the seizure of Crimea from Ukraine in 2014. However, Germany depends on Russia for much of its energy supply, and Russia needs the cash payments for oil and gas. Relations were tense with the United States during the first Presidency of Donald Trump but improved at the start of the Presidency of Joe Biden.
Bismark and unification
Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom in 1701. It became increasingly large and powerful in the 18th and 19th centuries. It had a major voice in European affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleon's defeat, Prussia acquired rich new territories, including the coal-rich Ruhr. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junker and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians.Prussian Minister-President Otto von Bismarck controlled Prussian foreign policy and his goal was to unify the German states into a powerful new nation under Prussian leadership. He used wars against Denmark, Austria and France to achieve his goal in 1871. At the same time Austria was allied with smaller German states and Bismarck decided it was necessary to cut Austria off—Austria would not be part of the new German empire. In 1864, eighteen-year-old Ludwig II, became king of the Kingdom of Bavaria. It was smaller and much less powerful than Prussia, but it was the key to southern Germany. Tensions between Austria and Prussia escalated steadily toward war. Bismarck tried to convince Bavaria to be neutral but the young king refused and continued Bavaria's alliance with Austria. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War began. Bavaria and most of the south German states remained allied with Austria, but would play a small role in the war against Prussia. Prussia quickly defeated the Kingdom of Hanover, then won the Battle of Königgrätz against Austria, which soon sued for peace.
1871–1919
Military role in shaping foreign policy
After the creation of the German Empire in 1871, diplomatic relations were handled by the Imperial government, rather than by lower-level governments such as the Prussian and Bavarian governments. Down to 1914, the Chancellor typically dominated foreign policy decisions, supported by his Foreign Minister. The powerful German Army reported separately to the Emperor, and increasingly played a major role in shaping foreign policy when military alliances or warfare was at issue.In diplomatic terms, Germany used the Prussian system of military attaches attached to diplomatic locations, with highly talented young officers assigned to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, and military capabilities of their assigned nations. These officers used close observation, conversations, and paid agents to produce very high quality reports that gave a significant advantage to the military planners.
The military staff grew increasingly powerful, reducing the role of the Minister of War and increasingly asserting itself in foreign policy decisions. Otto von Bismarck, the Imperial Chancellor from 1871 to 1890, was annoyed by military interference in foreign policy affairs–in 1887, for example, the military tried to convince the Emperor to declare war on Russia; they also encouraged Austria to attack Russia. Bismarck never controlled the army, but he did complain vehemently, and the military leaders drew back. In 1905, when the Morocco affair was roiling international politics, Chief of the German General Staff Alfred von Schlieffen called for a preventive war against France. At a critical point in the July crisis of 1914, Helmuth von Moltke, the Chief of Staff, without telling the Emperor or Chancellor, advised his Austro-Hungarian counterpart Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf to mobilize against Russia at once. During World War I, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff increasingly set foreign policy, working directly with the Emperor–and indeed shaped his decision-making–leaving the chancellor and civilian officials in the dark. Historian Gordon A. Craig says that the crucial decisions in going to war in 1914, "were made by the soldiers and that, in making them, they displayed an almost complete disregard for political considerations."
Bismarck
Bismarck's post-1871 foreign policy was peace-oriented. Germany was content—it had all it wanted so that its main goal was peace and stability. However, peaceful relations with France became difficult in 1871 when Germany annexed the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. German public opinion demanded it to humiliate France, and the Army wanted its more defensible frontiers. Bismarck reluctantly gave in—French would never forget or forgive, he calculated, so might as well take the provinces. Germany's foreign policy fell into a trap with no exit. "In retrospect it is easy to see that the annexation of Alsace–Lorraine was a tragic mistake." Once the annexation took place the only policy that made sense was trying to isolate France so it had no strong allies. However France complicated Berlin's plans when it became friends with Russia. In 1905 a German plan for an alliance with Russia fell through because Russia was too close to France.The League of Three Emperors was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria, and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. In 1877–1878, Russia fought a victorious war with the Ottoman Empire and attempted to impose the Treaty of San Stefano on it. This upset the British in particular, as they were long concerned with preserving the Ottoman Empire and preventing a Russian takeover of the Bosphorus Strait. Germany hosted the Congress of Berlin, whereby a more moderate peace settlement was agreed to. Germany had no direct interest in the Balkans, however, which was largely an Austrian and Russian sphere of influence, although King Carol I of Romania was a German prince.