Ground spider
Ground spiders comprise Gnaphosidae, the seventh largest spider family with about 2,500 described species in over 100 genera distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central Europe, and common genera include Gnaphosa, Drassodes, Micaria, Cesonia, Zelotes and many others. They are closely related to Clubionidae. At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.
Hunting behavior
Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.
Description
Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus Micaria. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites. All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat.
The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism. The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.
Genera
, this family includes 154 genera and 2,498 species:Afrodrassex Haddad & Booysen, 2022 – Angola, South AfricaAlgarvezelotes Wunderlich, 2023 – PortugalAllomicythus Ono, 2009 – China, VietnamAllozelotes Yin & Peng, 1998 – ChinaAlmafuerte Grismado & Carrión, 2017 – Argentina, Bolivia, UruguayAmazoromus Brescovit & Höfer, 1994 – BrazilAmmoxenus Simon, 1893 – Southern AfricaAmusia Tullgren, 1910 – South Africa, East AfricaAnagraphis Simon, 1893 – Ethiopia, Libya, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, East AfricaAnagrina Berland, 1920 – Kenya, NigerAneplasa Tucker, 1923 – Angola, South Africa, East AfricaAnzacia Dalmas, 1919 – OceaniaAphantaulax Simon, 1878 – Africa, Asia, Russia, France, Australia, North Africa, São Tomé and PríncipeApodrassodes Vellard, 1924 – Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, South AmericaApodrassus Chamberlin, 1916 – PeruAponetius Kamura, 2020 – JapanApopyllus Platnick & Shadab, 1984 – Bonaire, Curaçao, Mexico, South AmericaArauchemus Ott & Brescovit, 2012 – BrazilAsemesthes Simon, 1887 – Angola, Ethiopia, Southern AfricaAsiabadus Roewer, 1961 – Central AsiaAustraloechemus Schmidt & Piepho, 1994 – Cape Verde, Ascension IsAustrammo Platnick, 2002 – AustraliaAvstroneulanda Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022 – Australia, Papua New GuineaBarrowammo Platnick, 2002 – AustraliaBenoitodes Platnick, 1993 – St. HelenaBerinda Roewer, 1928 – Tanzania, Egypt, Western Asia, Cyprus, Greece. Introduced to JapanBerlandina Dalmas, 1922 – Africa, Asia, Alps, Mediterranean to Central AsiaCabanadrassus Mello-Leitão, 1941 – ArgentinaCallilepis Westring, 1874 – Asia, Europe, Mexico, North AmericaCallipelis Zamani & Marusik, 2017 – IranCamillina Berland, 1919 – Africa, Italy, North America, South America. Introduced to MalaysiaCanariognapha Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary IslandsCeryerda Simon, 1909 – AustraliaCesonia Simon, 1893 – Turkey, Cyprus, Greece, North America, Azerbaijan, Bahama Is, Dominican Rep, Nevis, St, St. Kitts, Vincent, Virgin IsChatzakia Lissner & Bosmans, 2016 – SpainCivizelotes Senglet, 2012 – Morocco, Asia, EuropeCladothela Kishida, 1928 – China, Japan, KoreaCoillina Yin & Peng, 1998 – China, Myanmar, IndiaCoreodrassus Paik, 1984 – AsiaCryptodrassus Miller, 1943 – Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Asia, Russia, Southern EuropeCryptoerithus Rainbow, 1915 – AustraliaCubanopyllus Alayón & Platnick, 1993 – CubaDai Liu & Zhang, 2024 – ChinaDiaphractus Purcell, 1907 – Southern Africa, East AfricaDrassodes Westring, 1851 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Brazil, Chile, PeruDrassodex Murphy, 2007 – Turkey, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, FranceDrassyllus Chamberlin, 1922 – Asia, Mexico, North America, EuropeEchemella Strand, 1906 – DR Congo, EthiopiaEchemographis Caporiacco, 1955 – VenezuelaEchemoides Mello-Leitão, 1938 – South AmericaEchemus Simon, 1878 – Africa, Asia, southern Europe, AustraliaEilica Keyserling, 1891 – South Africa, Zimbabwe, India, Cuba, Jamaica, Panama, Australia, South America, USA to HondurasEncoptarthria Main, 1954 – AustraliaEpicharitus Rainbow, 1916 – AustraliaFedotovia Charitonov, 1946 – Afghanistan, Mongolia, IranGaviphosa Sankaran, 2021 – IndiaGertschosa Platnick & Shadab, 1981 – Jamaica, Panama, Mexico, United StatesGnaphosa Latreille, 1804 – North Africa, Europe, North America, Asia, Central AmericaHaplodrassus Chamberlin, 1922 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North AmericaHerpyllus Hentz, 1832 – Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Korea, Mexico, North America, ArgentinaHeser Tuneva, 2004 – Algeria, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, India, Mediterranean. Introduced to Burkina Faso, Mexico, United StatesHitobia Kamura, 1992 – AsiaHomoeothele Simon, 1908 – AustraliaHongkongia Song & Zhu, 1998 – Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, China, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, IndiaHotwheels Liu & Zhang, 2024 – ChinaHypodrassodes Dalmas, 1919 – Australia, New Caledonia, New ZealandIbala Fitzpatrick, 2009 – Mozambique, Southern AfricaIntruda Forster, 1979 – Australia. Introduced to New ZealandIranotricha Zamani & Marusik, 2018 – IranKaitawa Forster, 1979 – New ZealandKikongo Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Kenya, D.R. CongoKishidaia Yaginuma, 1960 – Asia, Russia, ItalyKituba Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – D.R. CongoLadissa Simon, 1907 – Benin, Sierra Leone, PakistanLaronius Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 – China, Indonesia, ThailandLasophorus Chatzaki, 2018 – Turkey, Cyprus, GreeceLatica Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020 – Argentina, UruguayLatonigena Simon, 1893 – South AmericaLeptodrassex Murphy, 2007 – Mozambique, Algeria, Libya, South Africa, Lebanon, Portugal, Spain, FranceLeptodrassus Simon, 1878 – Ethiopia, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Israel, Azores, Canary Islands, Southern Europe, MexicoLeptopilos Levy, 2009 – Africa, Asia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, GreeceLitopyllus Chamberlin, 1922 – Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, United StatesMacarophaeus Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary Islands, MadeiraMarinarozelotes Ponomarev, 2020 – Ethiopia, Algeria, Egypt, Asia, Europe. Introduced to South Africa, Senegal, St. Helena, Hawaii, Mexico, United States, Samoa, South America, Ascension IsMarjanus Chatzaki, 2018 – China, Iran, Turkey, GreeceMarusik Lin & Li, 2023 – VietnamMatua Forster, 1979 – New ZealandMegamyrmaekion Reuss, 1834 – Africa, India, Iran, Israel, AustraliaMeizhelan Lin & Li, 2023 – ChinaMicaria Westring, 1851 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, AustraliaMicrodrassus Dalmas, 1919 – SeychellesMicrosa Platnick & Shadab, 1977 – Cuba, Bahama Is, Virgin IsMicythus Thorell, 1897 – China, Indonesia, Myanmar, ThailandMinosia Dalmas, 1921 – Africa, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Western Asia, Spain, FranceMinosiella Dalmas, 1921 – Somalia, Northern Africa, Afghanistan, Western Asia, GreeceMolycria Simon, 1887 – AustraliaMontebello Hogg, 1914 – AustraliaMyandra Simon, 1887 – AustraliaNauhea Forster, 1979 – New ZealandNeodrassex Ott, 2012 – Argentina, BrazilNodocion Chamberlin, 1922 – Canada, Mexico, United StatesNomindra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia, Southern AustraliaNomisia Dalmas, 1921 – Africa, Asia, Europe, Mediterranean, Middle EastNotiodrassus Bryant, 1935 – New ZealandOdontodrassus Jézéquel, 1965 – Egypt, South Africa, Ivory Coast, Asia, Russia, New Caledonia, North Africa, Salomon Is. Introduced to Seychelles, Jamaica, Pacific IsOrodrassus Chamberlin, 1922 – Canada, United StatesParabonna Mello-Leitão, 1947 – BrazilParasyrisca Schenkel, 1963 – Asia, Hungary, Ukraine, Russia, North AmericaPhaeocedus Simon, 1893 – Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, FrancePlatnickus Liu & Zhang, 2023 – ChinaPoecilochroa Westring, 1874 – Africa, Korea, Indonesia, Philippines, India, Canary Islands, Italy, Portugal, Spain, France, French Polynesia, Brazil, Galapagos, Peru, Europe to Central Asia, São Tomé and PríncipePseudodrassus Caporiacco, 1935 – Libya, China, TurkeyPterotricha Kulczyński, 1903 – Africa, Asia, Russia, Southern EuropePterotrichina Dalmas, 1921 – Northern Africa, Pakistan, MaltaRastellus Platnick & Griffin, 1990 – Southern AfricaSanitubius Kamura, 2001 – China, Japan, KoreaScopoides Platnick, 1989 – Mexico, United StatesScotocesonia Caporiacco, 1947 – GuyanaScotognapha Dalmas, 1920 – Canary Islands, Savage IsScotophaeus Simon, 1893 – Africa, Asia, Europe, New Zealand, Argentina, East Africa, Salvages. Introduced to Hawaii, PeruSergiolus Simon, 1892 – China, Japan, Korea, North AmericaSernokorba Kamura, 1992 – China, Japan, Korea, Hungary, Bulgaria, Russia, Spain, FranceSetaphis Simon, 1893 – Africa, Asia, Canary Islands, Southern EuropeShaitan Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013 – Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, RussiaShiragaia Paik, 1992 – KoreaSidydrassus Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002 – Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Azerbaijan, Iran, RussiaSmionia Dalmas, 1920 – Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa, Cape VerdeSolitudes Lin & Li, 2020 – ChinaSorkinius Sherwood, Jocqué, Cazanove & Derepas, 2025 – Eastern Africa, South Africa, YemenSosticus Chamberlin, 1922 – Kazakhstan, China, Caucasus, Iran, Russia, Canada, United StatesSymphanodes Rainbow, 1916 – AustraliaSynaphosus Platnick & Shadab, 1980 – Africa, Asia, Europe, United States. Introduced to Cape Verde, Mexico, Ascension IslandTalanites Simon, 1893 – Egypt, Tunisia, Asia, Ukraine, Russia, Cyprus, Mexico, United StatesTalanitoides Levy, 2009 – IsraelTitus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901 – ZimbabweTrachyzelotes Lohmander, 1944 – Caucasus, Iran, TurkeyTrephopoda Tucker, 1923 – Botswana, Namibia, South AfricaTrichothyse Tucker, 1923 – Africa, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India, Iran, Israel, Turkey, Europe, Portugal to Turkmenistan. Introduced to Cape VerdeTurkozelotes Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009 – Morocco, Kazakhstan, Western Asia, EuropeUrozelotes Mello-Leitão, 1938 – Zambia, India, Russia, Italy, Portugal, France. Introduced to Australia, both Americas, tropical AfricaVerita Ramírez & Grismado, 2016 – ArgentinaWesmaldra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – AustraliaWydundra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia, Indonesia, MalaysiaXerophaeus Purcell, 1907 – Africa, YemenXizangiana Sherwood, Li & Zhang, 2022 – China, IndiaYoruba Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Ivory Coast, NigeriaYuqilin Lin & Li, 2023 – ChinaZagrotes Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021 – IranZelanda Özdikmen, 2009 – New ZealandZelominor Snazell & Murphy, 1997 – Algeria, Portugal, SpainZelotes Gistel, 1848 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America to South AmericaZelotibia Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005 – Congo, Eastern AfricaZelowan Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010 – Congo, Burundi, NamibiaZimiromus Banks, 1914 – Jamaica, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico, South America, Bahama Is, Virgin Is