Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea, officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is an island country in Oceania that comprises the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and offshore islands in Melanesia, a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean north of Australia. It has a land border with Indonesia to the west and maritime borders with Australia to the south and the Solomon Islands to the east. Its capital is Port Moresby. The country's includes a large mainland and hundreds of islands.
The territory of Papua New Guinea was split in the 1880s between German New Guinea in the north and the British Territory of Papua in the south, the latter of which was ceded to Australia in 1902. All of present-day Papua New Guinea came under Australian control following World War I, although it remained two distinct territories. The nation was the site of fierce fighting during the New Guinea campaign of World War II, following which the two territories were united in 1949. Papua New Guinea became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1975. Representing the King is a Governor-General. Politics takes place within a Westminster system, with the government led by a Prime Minister. Members of the national parliament also serve as provincial leaders.
The population is highly rural, with only 14% living in urban centres in 2023. The persistence of traditional communities and lifestyles are explicitly protected by the Papua New Guinea Constitution. While official population estimates suggest the population is around 11.8 million, estimates using satellite data put the number closer to 17 million. The population is extremely diverse. There are 840 known spoken languages, making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world. Cultural practices are similarly diverse. Many cultural and linguistic groups are small, although English and Tok Pisin serve as common languages. This diversity has led to friction, especially in politics, and the government has struggled to combat violence against women.
The country has a large Christian majority population, of several different denominations, and in March 2025 its constitution was amended to adopt Christianity as the official state religion.
The rural and diverse population is a result of highly mountainous geography. The land supports around 5% of all known species, and the export-driven economy is also dependent on natural resources. Papua New Guinea is a developing economy where nearly 40% of the population are subsistence farmers living relatively independently of the cash economy. The country retains close ties to Australia, and has enhanced ties with both Asia and the Pacific.
Etymology
Papua is derived from a local term of uncertain origin, that may have referred to at least part of the island now called New Guinea. In 1526 Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes named the island Ilhas dos Papuas. The word "Papua" has applied to various areas of New Guinea since then, with its inclusion in "Papua New Guinea" coming from its use for the Territory of Papua."New Guinea" was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez. In 1545, he noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. Guinea, in its turn, is etymologically derived from the Portuguese word Guiné. The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar etymologies, which likely mean "of the burnt face" or similar, in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants. Its use in the country name comes from German New Guinea, later the Territory of New Guinea, which was united with the territory of Papua.
History
First settlement
Archaeological evidence indicates that modern humans first arrived in what became New Guinea and Australia, as well as the Bismarck Archipelago, around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago. Bougainville was settled by around 28,000 years ago, and the more distant Manus Island by around 20,000 years ago. These were part of the earliest migrations of humans from Africa, and the resulting populations remained relatively isolated from the rest of the world throughout prehistory. Rising sea levels isolated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago, although Aboriginal Australians and New Guineans had already diverged from each other from about 37,000 years ago.Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas in the world where people independently domesticated plants. Before the onset of full-scale agriculture, some plants had already been domesticated, including sago, Canarium indicum, and karuka. Archaeological evidence shows that Austronesian-speaking peoples of the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago by 3,300 years ago. It is unknown whether they also settled on the mainland at this time, but there is strong evidence of their presence in coastal areas from around 500 BC. These communities interacted with larger trade networks. It is likely through these trading networks that banana and sugarcane moved from New Guinea to other areas of the world.
Trade became rarer around 300 AD, as demand for goods shifted to the Maluku Islands and Timor. After European interest in the region grew in the 16th century, Dutch influence grew over the Sultanate of Tidore. As Dutch authorities become more interested in New Guinea, they confirmed and extended the sultanate's claims over western New Guinea. Renewed trade began to spread to the eastern parts of New Guinea in the late 17th century, driven by demand for goods such as dammar gum, sea cucumbers, pearls, copra, shells, and bird-of-paradise feathers.
On New Guinea, communities were economically linked through trading networks. Despite this, aside from some political alliances, each community functioned largely independently, relying on subsistence agriculture. Goods were often traded along established chains, and some villagers would be familiar with and sometimes know the languages of the immediately neighbouring villages. Some wider trading networks existed in maritime areas. While people did not move far along these routes, goods moved long distances through local exchanges, and cultural practices likely diffused along them. Despite these links, the creation of larger political entities under European rule had no precedent, and in many cases brought together communities that historically had antagonistic relationships, or no relationship at all.
European influence
It is likely that some ships from China and Southeast Asia visited the island at times, and that there was some contact with New Guinean communities. The Portuguese explorer António de Abreu was the first European to discover the island of New Guinea. Portuguese traders introduced the South American sweet potato to the Moluccas. From there, it likely spread into what is today Papua New Guinea sometime in the 17th or 18th century, initially from the southern coast. It soon spread inland to the highlands, and became a staple food. The introduction of the sweet potato, possibly alongside other agricultural changes, transformed traditional agriculture and societies. This likely led to the spread of the Big man social structure. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and led to significant population growth in the highlands.File:New Guinea.png|thumb|left|alt=Flag map showing New Guinea divided between the Netherlands, Germany, and the United Kingdom |New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. Germany and Britain controlled the eastern half of New Guinea.
By the 1800s, there was some trade with the Dutch East Indies. Beginning in the 1860s, people from New Guinea were effectively taken as slaves to Queensland and Fiji as part of the blackbirding trade. This was stopped in 1884. Most of those taken were from coastal Papua. Those who returned to New Guinea brought their experiences with Western culture with them, but the largest impact was the development of a Melanesian Pidgin that would eventually become the Tok Pisin language.
Christianity was introduced to New Guinea on 15 September 1847 when a group of Marist missionaries went to Woodlark Island. Missions were the primary source of Western culture as well as religion. The western half of the island was annexed by the Netherlands in 1848. The nearby Torres Strait Islands were annexed by Queensland in 1878, and Queensland attempted to annex some of New Guinea in 1883. The eastern half of the island was divided between Germany in the north and the United Kingdom in the south in 1884. The German New Guinea Company had initially tried to develop plantations, but when this was not successful began to engage in barter trade. In the British area, gold was found near the Mambare River in 1895.
File:Reading the proclamation of annexation, Mr Lawe's house, Port Moresby, New Guinea, November 1884 - photographer John Paine or Augustine E. Dyer.jpg|thumb|alt=Sepia photo of a large crowd around a two-story building, with two raised flags in front of the building|British annexation of southeast New Guinea in 1884
In 1888, the British protectorate was annexed by Britain. In 1902, Papua was effectively transferred to the authority of the newly federated British dominion of Australia. With the passage of the Papua Act 1905, the area was officially renamed the Territory of Papua, and the Australian administration became formal in 1906, with Papua becoming fully annexed as an Australian territory.
Under European rule, social relations amongst the New Guinean population changed. Tribal fighting decreased, while in new urban areas there was greater mixing as people moved to partake in the cash crop economy. The large inequality between colonial administrators and locals led to the emergence of what colonial governments called cargo cults. One of the most significant impacts was to changes in local travel. Colonial authorities outlawed tribal warfare, and it became normal to move for work, while roads increased the connectivity between inland areas.
Colonial authorities generally worked with individual village representatives, although neither German nor British authorities developed an effective system of indirect rule. In German New Guinea Tok Pisin began to spread through local adoption, and was reluctantly used by German authorities. In areas under British and then Australian governance, Hiri Motu, a pidgin version of the Motu language, became established as a de facto official language.
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Australian forces captured German New Guinea and occupied it throughout the war. After the end of the war, the League of Nations authorised Australia to administer this area as a Class "C" League of Nations mandate territory from 9 May 1921, which became the Territory of New Guinea. The Territory of Papua and the new Mandate of New Guinea were administered separately. Gold was discovered in Bulolo in the 1920s, and prospectors searched other areas of the island. The highland valleys were explored by prospectors in the 1930s and were found to be inhabited by over a million people.