Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is a state in northeast India. It was known as the North-East Frontier Agency until 1972, after which it became a union territory under the name Arunachal Pradesh. It became a state on 20 February 1987. Itanagar is its capital and largest town.
It shares international borders with Bhutan in the west, Myanmar in the east, and a disputed 1,129 km border with China's Tibet Autonomous Region in the north at the McMahon Line. Arunachal Pradesh is claimed in its entirety by China as South Tibet as part of the Tibet Autonomous Region; China occupied some regions of Arunachal Pradesh in 1962 but later withdrew its forces.
As per the 2011 census, Arunachal Pradesh has a population of 1,383,727. With only 17 inhabitants per square kilometre, it is the least densely populated state in India. It is an ethnically diverse state, with predominantly Monpa people in the west, Tani people in the centre, Mishmi and Tai people in the east, and Naga people in the southeast of the state. About 23 major tribes and 100 sub-tribes live in the state, including Nocte, Adi, Nyishi, Singpho, Galo, Tagin, and Apatani. The Nyishi are the largest ethnic group in the region. The Mishmi tribe has three sub-tribes, namely Idu-Mishmi, Digaru-Mishmi, and Miju-Mishmi.

Etymology

Arunachal Pradesh means Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains, which is the sobriquet for the state in Sanskrit. The term was coined during the formation of the state. Prior to the year 1972, it was called North-East Frontier Agency.
The People's Republic of China does not recognize Arunachal Pradesh, and claims the land to be part of Tibet, calling it South Tibet. In ancient Tibetan texts, eastern Arunachal Pradesh and some parts of Tibet were called Lhoyü while the residents were called Lhobha people, while Tawang district and West Kameng district in western Arunachal Pradesh were called Monyul.

History

Ancient period

Very little ancient history is known about the region apart from the Northwestern corner, and the areas bordering current Assam. The Northwestern regions came under Monpa and Tibetan control.
Northwestern parts of this area came under the control of the Monpa kingdom of Monyul under Tibet which flourished between 500 BCE and 600 CE. The Monpa and Sherdukpen keep historical records of the existence of local chiefdoms in the northwest as well.
According to Tibetan chronicles, Monyul was ruled by Gongkar Gyal, descendent of an exiled Tibetan ruler named Lhase Tsangma, the brother of Tibetan king Ralpacan who arrived in Monyul in 837 A.D or earlier.
A descendant of Gongkar Gyal became the ruler of Trashiyangtse region of Bhutan and Gapde Tsan another descendant was the ruler of Khorwong valley in Thembang town.
Later, the second son of Gongkar Gyal, Wongme Palde who returned to Tibet owing to the poverty in Khorwong valley came back to Monyul to become its ruler.
The Rgyal rigs text written in 1668 or 1728 contains a record of taxes collected. Taxes were paid via coins, foodstuffs, or livestock from area around present-day Kameng district and Tawang district.
The Monpas ་known to the Chinese as Menba were responsible for trade between Assam and Tibet and held the Koriapar Dooar at Sonitpur district of Assam. The Monpa chief were subordinate to the ruler of Tawang who in turn were subordinate to the Government of Tibet or Ganden Phodrang in Lhasa. The Tibetan government at Lhasa appointed Tibetan officials called Gellongs to supervise the local Monpa chief. The Monpa chief who looked after the Duar were called Tsorgon, a position created in the 16th century.
According to historical Tibetan text the state of Arunachal Pradesh known as Lhoyu came under the control of Tubo Kingdom or Tibetan Empire in the 7th century CE.

Medieval period

In the 17th century, the 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, who achieved political supremacy over Tibet in 1642, imposed a tax called Khrey over Monyul and instructed the construction of fortresses in Monpa area called Dzong which served as centers for administration and tax collection.
The fortressess built were Dirang Dzong, Taklung Dzong and Gyangkhar Dzong to collect tax from the Dirang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa and Tawang Monpa respectively. The officials who collected the taxes were called Dzongpon.
The tax was carried to Tawang Monastery and then to Lhasa via Tsona city.
File:Tsangyang Gyatso birth place.jpg|thumb|Urgelling Monastery built in 1489 A.D by Urgen Sangpo in Tawang is the birthplace of 6th Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso
The 6th Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso was born in Tawang and died in Amdo on his way to Beijing after being kidnapped by the Mongol forces under Lha-bzang Khan, the last ruler of Khoshut Khanate on the approval of Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty.
Before his death the 6th Dalai Lama instructed the construction of notable buildings like Tromzikhang in Barkhor, Lhasa.
Arunachal Pradesh falls under Kham and Ü-Tsang cultural region of Tibet which also includes the Brahmaputra River watershed.
The foothills and the plains, were under the control of the Chutia kings of Assam. Inner parts of the state remained independent and self-governed even though interactions with external parties did exist.
The main archaeological sites of the state include:

Site	Dated to	Built by
Bhismaknagar Fort, Roing	8th–15th century	Chutia kings
Bolung Fort, Bolung	13th century	Chutia kings
Dimachung-Betali, West Kameng	13th century	Chutia kings
Gomsi Fort, East Siang	13th century	Chutia kings
Rukmini Fort, Roing	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Tezu Fort, Roing	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Naksha Parbat ruins, East Kameng	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Ita Fort, Itanagar	14th–15th century	Chutia kings
Buroi Fort, Papum Pare	13th century	Chutia kings
Malinithan Temple, Likabali	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Ita Pukhuri, Ithili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Padum Pukhuri, Ithili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Kampona brick tank, Idili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Kanying brick tank, Idili	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Bolung brick canal, Bolung	13th–14th century	Chutia kings
Dirang Dzong, West Kameng	17th century	Monpa
Tawang Monastery, Tawang	17th century	Merak Lama Lodre Gyatso

British India

In 1912–13, the British Indian government established the North-East Frontier Tracts. It was divided into three sections, which eventually came to be called the Ballipara Frontier Tract, Lakhimpur Frontier Tract and Sadiya Frontier Tract.

The McMahon line

In 1913–1914, representatives of the de facto independent state of Tibet and Britain met in India to define the borders of 'Outer Tibet'. British administrator Sir Henry McMahon drew the McMahon Line as the border between British India and Tibet, placing Tawang and other areas within British India. The Tibetan and British representatives devised the Simla Accord including the McMahon Line, but the Chinese representatives did not concur. The Simla Accord denies other benefits to China unless it assents to the Accord.
The Chinese position was that Tibet was not independent from China and could not sign treaties, so the Accord was invalid, like the Anglo-Chinese and Anglo-Russian conventions. British records show that the condition for the Tibetan government to accept the new border was that China must accept the Simla Convention. As Britain was not able to get an acceptance from China, Tibetans considered the McMahon line invalid.
In the time that China did not exercise power in Tibet, the line had no serious challenges. In 1935, a Deputy Secretary in the Foreign Department, Olaf Caroe, "discovered" that the McMahon Line was not drawn on official maps. The Survey of India published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary in 1937. In 1938, two decades after the Simla Conference, the British finally published the Simla Accord as a bilateral accord and the Survey of India published a detailed map showing the McMahon Line as a border of India.
In April 1938, a small British force led by Captain G. S. Lightfoot arrived in Tawang and informed the monastery that the district was now Indian territory. The Tibetan government at Lhasa protested and its authority was restored after Lightfoot's return.
In 1944, Britain established administrations in the area, from Dirang Dzong in the west to Walong in the east. Administrative control extended over the area of the Tawang tract lying south of the Sela Pass when J.P. Mills set up an Assam Rifles post at Dirang Dzong and sent the Tibetan tax-collectors packing. Tibetan protests were brushed aside. However, no steps were taken to evict Tibet from the area north of the pass which contained Tawang town. The Tawang district remained under Tibetan authority until 1951.

Sino-Indian War

Following the conclusion of British rule, India gained independence in 1947, while the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. The new Chinese administration maintained the position that the McMahon Line was not valid.
In October 1947, independent Tibet wrote a note to the Government of India asking for a "return" of the territories that the British had allegedly occupied from Tibet. Among these were listed Zayul and Walong and in direction of Pemakoe, Lonag, Lopa, Mon, Bhutan, Sikkim, Darjeeling. After negotiation with the Indian government, Tibet relinquished claims on these territories.
In November 1950, the PRC was poised to take over Tibet by force, and India supported Tibet. Journalist Sudha Ramachandran argued that China claimed Tawang on behalf of Tibetans, though Tibetans did not claim Tawang as part of Tibet.
In February 1951, India sent Ralengnao Khathing of Manipur with a small escort and several hundred porters to Tawang and took control of the remainder of the Tawang tract from the Tibetans, removing the Tibetan administration.
What is now Arunachal Pradesh was established as the North-East Frontier Agency in 1954. Sino-Indian relations were cordial until 1960. Resurgence of the border disagreement was a factor leading to the Sino-Indian War in 1962, during which China captured most of Arunachal Pradesh, including the Tawang tract. China soon declared victory, withdrew back to the McMahon Line, and returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963.
The war resulted in the termination of barter trade with Tibet, although since 2007 the Indian government has shown signs of wanting to resume barter trade.