West Atlantic languages

The West Atlantic languages of West Africa are a major subgroup of the Niger–Congo languages.
The Atlantic languages are spoken along the Atlantic coast from Senegal to Liberia, though transhumant Fula speakers have spread eastward and are found in large numbers across the Sahel, from Senegal to Nigeria, Cameroon and Sudan. Wolof of Senegal and several of the Fula languages are the most populous Atlantic languages, with several million speakers each. Other significant members include Serer and the Jola dialect cluster of Senegal. Temne, a major language of Sierra Leone, was included in the Atlantic subgroup in earlier classifications but in modern proposals, it is no longer grouped within Atlantic.
Most Atlantic languages exhibit consonant mutation and have noun-class systems similar to those of the distantly related Bantu languages. Some languages are tonal, while others such as Wolof have pitch-accent systems. The basic word order tends to be SVO.

Classification and scope

Traditional classification

The Atlantic family was first identified by Sigismund Koelle in 1854. In the early 20th century, Carl Meinhof claimed that Fula was a Hamitic language, but August von Klingenhaben and Joseph Greenberg's work established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the Niger–Congo family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However, comparative work on Niger–Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger–Congo, usually based on lexicostatistics, generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than Mande and other languages that lack noun classes.
David Sapir proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent Bijago language of the Bissagos Islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau:

Atlantic
*Northern
**Sénégal languages: Fula–Serer; Wolof
**Cangin languages
**Bak languages
**Eastern Sénégal–Portuguese Guinea languages
***Tenda languages
***Biafada–Pajade
***Kobiana–Kasanga–Banhum
***Nalu–Mbulungish–Baga Mboteni
*Bijago
*Southern
**Sua
**Mel languages
**Limba

Sapir's classification is widely cited in handbooks on African linguistics, and is also used in the Ethnologue.

Recent proposals

The unity of the Atlantic languages—as traditionally defined—has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby, who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger–Congo. At the current state of research, the wide concept of Atlantic within the Niger–Congo family is no longer held up.
Segerer and Pozdniakov & Segerer propose a narrowed-down version of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches within the Niger–Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic. Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages.
Güldemann goes even further, and also treats Nalu and Mbulungish–Baga Mboteni as unclassified first-order branches of Niger–Congo.

Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020)

Revised classification of the Atlantic languages :

Atlantic
*North
**Wolof: Wolof, Lebu
**Nyun-Buy
***Nyun
***Buy
**Tenda-Jaad
***Tenda: Basari, Tanda, Bedik, Bapen; Konyagi
***Jaad: Biafada; Badiaranke
**Fula-Sereer
***Fula
***Sereer
**Cangin
***Palor, Ndut
***Noon, Laala, Saafi
**Nalu
***Nalu
***Bage Fore
***Baga Mboteni
*Bak
**Balant: Ganja, Kentohe, Fraase
**Joola-Manjaku
***Joola: Fogny, Banjal, Kasa, Kwaatay, Karon, Ejamat, Keeraak, etc.; Bayot ?
***Manjaku
***Bok, Cur, Bassarel
***Pepel
***Mankanya
**Bijogo: Kamona, Kagbaaga, Kajoko
Merrill (2021)

Merrill proposes that Atlantic is not a valid subgroup of Niger-Congo, but rather considers each of the established Atlantic "branches" to all be primary branches of Niger-Congo. Furthermore, Merrill suggests that due to the divergence of the Atlantic languages, the homeland of Niger-Congo may lie in the northwest of sub-Saharan Africa.

North Atlantic geographical area
*Fula-Sereer
**Fula
**Sereer
*Cangin
*Wolof
*Bainunk-Kobiana-Kasanga
**Kobiana
**Gujaher
**Gubëeher
**Guñaamolo
*Biafada-Pajade
**Pajade
**Biafada
*Tenda
**Konyagi
**Bassari
**Bedik
*Bak
**Joola
**Manjak
**Balanta
*Bijogo

Merrill also notes that Tenda and Biafada-Pajade share similarities with each other, and may possibly form a linkage.

Reconstruction

Proto-Atlantic lexical innovations reconstructed by Pozdniakov & Segerer :

Gloss	Proto-Atlantic
star	*kʷʊʈ
to fly	*yiiʈ
to die	*keʈ
to rot	*pʊʈ
three	*taʈ
eye	*giʈ
liver	*heɲ
feather	*lung
hair	*wal
baobab	bak ~ ɓak
to see	*jok
tree trunk	*dik
to give birth	was / bas

Wilson also proposed the tentative Proto-Atlantic reconstructions:

Gloss	Proto-Atlantic
head	*kop
ear	*nop
eye	*kit
mouth	*tum

Sample Atlantic cognate sets:

Language	‘eye’	‘liver’	‘feather’	‘hair’	‘baobab’	‘to see’	‘tree trunk’	‘to give birth’
Proto-Atlantic	*giʈ	*heɲ	*lung	*wal	*b/ɓak	*jok?	*dik	*w/bas
Tenda-Jaad	*gəɬ	*ceeɲ	*dɔ̰̀ngw	*mbal	ɓak	jeek?		*bas
Fula-Sereer	*git	xeeɲ		wiil	ɓaak/ɓok	jak	lek-	ɓas-il
Nyun-Buy	*giɬ	kɩɩɲ	lung		bɔk	njug?	leex/rien	bɔs
Wolof	-ət		dung	*-war		jàkk		wəs-in
Cangin	*ʔəɬ	*kɛɛɲ			ɓaʔ/ɓɔh		*dik	ɓəs
Nalu	cet				bɛɛk	yɛk	dik/lik
Joola	kiɬ	hɩɩɲ		*wal	bak	jʊk	nʊk-an	βɔs
Manjak	*kiɬ	*-ɩɲ	lung	*wɛl	bak	jʊk		bas
Balant	*kít/git	hɩ́ɩ́ɲɛ̰̀		wul/hul			ndíŋá/ndiik
Bijogo	ŋɛ		runk-	wa		joŋ	nik-an	-gbʸa

Reconstructions for individual West Atlantic branches can be found in Merrill.

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:

Classification	Language	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Senegambian, Serer	Sereer-Sine	leŋ	ƭik	tadik	nahik	ƥetik	ɓetaa fo leŋ	ɓetaa ƭak	ɓetaa tadak	ɓetaa nahak	xarɓaxaay
Senegambian, Serer	Serer-Sine	leŋ	ɗik	tadik	nahik	ɓedik	ɓetuː fa leŋ	ɓetuː ɗik	ɓetuː tadik	ɓetuː nahik	xarɓaxay
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Wolof	bɛn:	ɲaːr	ɲɛtː	ɲɛnt	dʒuroːm	dʒuroːm bɛn:	dʒuroːm ɲaːr	dʒuroːm ɲɛtː	dʒuroːm ɲɛnt	fukː
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	CE Niger Fulfulde	ɡɔ́ʔɔ̀	ɗíɗi	tátì	náì	ɟóè	ɟóé ɡɔ̀l	ɟóé ɗìɗi	ɟóé tátì	ɟóé náì	sáppò
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Western Niger Fulfulde	ɡoʔo	ɗiɗi	tati	naj	d͡ʒoj	d͡ʒeeɡom	d͡ʒeɗɗi	d͡ʒeetati	d͡ʒeenaj	sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Adamawa Fulfulde	ɡoʔo	ɗiɗi	tati	naj	d͡ʒowi	d͡ʒoweːɡo	d͡ʒoweːɗiɗi	d͡ʒoweːtati	d͡ʒoweːnaj	sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Fulfulde Maasina	ɡoʔo	ɗiɗi	tati	naj	d͡ʒoj	d͡ʒeːɡom	d͡ʒeɗ:i	d͡ʒet:i	d͡ʒeːnaj	sap:o
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Pular	ɡooto / ɡoo	ɗiɗi	tati	naj	d͡ʒowi	d͡ʒeeɡo	d͡ʒeeɗiɗi	d͡ʒeetati	d͡ʒeenaj	sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof	Pulaar	ɡoo	ɗiɗi	tati	naj	d͡ʒoj	d͡ʒeeɡom	d͡ʒeeɗiɗi	d͡ʒeetati	d͡ʒeenaj	sappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun	Baïnounk Gubëeher	-nduk	-na:k	-lal:	-rendek	cilax	cilax aŋɡa -nduk	cilax aŋɡa -na:k	cilax aŋɡa -lal:	cilax aŋɡa -rɛndɛk	ha:lax
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun	Gunyaamolo Banyun	uŋɡonduk	hanakk	halall	harɛnɛk	hɐməkila	hɐməkila iŋɡi uŋɡonduk	hɐməkila iŋɡi hanakk	hɐməkila iŋɡi halall	hɐməkila iŋɡi harɛnɛk	haala
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun	Gunyaamolo Banyun	-duk	-nak	-lall	-rɛnɛk	-məkila	-məkila iŋɡi -duk	-məkila iŋɡi -nak	-məkila iŋɡi -lall	-məkila iŋɡi -rɛnɛk	ha-lah
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun	Kasanga	-tɛɛna	-naandiid	-taar	-sannaʔ	jurooɡ	jurooɡ -tɛɛna	jurooɡ -naandiid	ɡasansanna	jurooɡ -sannaʔ	ŋaarooɡ
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun	Kobiana	-tee	-naŋ	-teeh	-sannaŋ	jurooɡ	jurooɡ -tee	jurooɡ -tee + ?	sannaŋ sannaŋ	sannaŋ sannaŋ + ?	ntaajã
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Badyara	painɛ / pakkã	maae	mat͡ʃaw	manne	kobəda	kobəda ŋka-inɛ	kobəda ŋka maae	kobəda ŋka mat͡ʃaw	kobəda ŋka manne	pappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Oniyan	imɐt	ɓəki	ɓətɐs	ɓənɐx	ɓəɲɟɔ	ɓəɲɟɔŋɡimɐt	ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓəki	ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓətɐs	ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓənɐx	ɛpəxw
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Biafada	nəmma	bihe	biɟo	bini	ɡəbəda	mpaaɟi	mpaaɟi ŋɡa ɲi	wase	leberebo	bapo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Biafada	-nnəmma	-ke	-jo	-nnihi	ɡəbəda	mpaaji	mpaaji nyi	wose	liberebo	ba-ppo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Budik	riye, diye, iye	xi, ki	sas, tas	maxala, maxana	co	co nɡə iye	co nɡə xi	co nɡə sas	co nɡə maxala	ipox
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda	Wamey	rjɐmpɔ	wɐhi	wɐrɐr	wɐr̃ɐh	mbəɗ	mbəɗ ɡə rjɐw̃	mbəɗ ɡə wɐhi	mbəɗ ɡə wɐrɐr	mbəɗ ɡə wɐnɐh	pəhw
Bijago	Bijago	nɔɔd	n-som	ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ	ya-aɡɛnɛk	n-deɔkɔ	na nɔɔd	ni n-som	ni ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ	na ya-aɡɛnɛk	n-ruakɔ
Bak, Balant-Ganja	Balanta-Ganja	-woda	-sibi	-aabí	-tahla	-jíif	faaj	faajinɡooda ?	taataala ?	-jíntahla ?	-jímmin
Bak, Balant-Ganja	Balanta-Kentohe	fho:dn / ho:dn	ksibm	khobm	ktahli	t͡ʃɪf	t͡ʃɪf kə fhdon	t͡ʃɪf kə ksibm	t͡ʃɪf kə khobm	t͡ʃɪf kə ktalhi	t͡ʃɪːfmɛn
Bak, Jola, Bayot	Bayot	ɛndon	tɪɡˑɡa	fɜzɪ	iβɛɪ	oɾɔ	oɾɔ-nenˑdon	oɾɔ-niɾɪɡˑɡa	oɾɔ-nifɛzɪ	oɾɔ-niβɛɪ	ɡʊtˑtɪɛ
Bak, Jola, Bayot	Senegal Bayot	ɛndon	ɪɾɪɡːə	i'feɟi	ɪ'βɛj	ɔɾɔ	ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɛndon	ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɪɾiɡːə	ɔɾɔ nɪ i'feɟi	ɔɾɔ nɪ ɪ'βɛj	ʊ'sɛβɔkɔ
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Bandial	jɐnʊɾ	suːβɐ	si'fʰəʝi	sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ	fʊ'tɔx	fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'jɐnʊɾ	fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'suːβɐ	fʊ'tɔx nɪ si'fʰəʝi	fʊ'tɔx nɪ sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ	ɣʊ'ɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Gusilay	janɷr ɷ = ʊ	suuβa	sifːəɟi	sɪbːaɣɪr	fɷtɔx	fɷtɔx nɪ janɷr	fɷtɔx nɪ suuβa	fɷtɔx nɪ sifːəɟi	fɷtɔx nɪ sɪbːaɣɪr	ɡɷɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Jola-Fonyi	jəkon	siɡaba	sifeeɡiir	sibaakiir	futɔk	futɔk di jəkon	futɔk di siɡaba	futɔk di sifeeɡiir	futɔk di sibaakiir	uɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Jola-Fonyi	jəkon	siɡaba	sifeeɡiir	sibaakiir	futɔk	futɔk di jəkon	futɔk di siɡaba	futɔk di sifeeɡiir	futɔk di sibaakiir	uɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Jola-Kaasa	jɐnɔ	sil̥uβə	si'həːɟi	sɪ'bɐkɪː	hʊ'tɔk	hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'jɐnɔ	hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'sil̥uβə	hʊ'tɔk lɪ si'həːɟi	hʊ'tɔk lɪ sɪ'bɐkɪː	kʊ'ŋɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Karon	yɔːnɔːl	susupək	sihəːciːl	sɪpɐːkɪːl	ɪsɐk	ɪsɐk nɪ yɔːnɔːl	ɪsɐk nɪŋ susupək	ɪsɐk nɪŋ sihəːciːl	ɪsɐk nɪŋ sɪpɐːkɪːl	ŋɐːsʊwɐn susupək
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper	Kwatay	hifeeneŋ	kúsuba	kíhaaji	kibaakir	hutok	hutok ni hifeeneŋ	hutok nu kúsuba	hutok ni kíhaaji	hutok ni kibaakir	sumoŋu
Bak, Manjaku-Papel	Mankanya	ulolɛ̂n	ŋɨ́tɛp	ŋɨ̀wàdʒɛ̀nt	ŋɨbakɨr	kaɲɛn	padʒɨ	nawuloŋ	bakɾɛ̂ŋ	kaɲɛ́ŋkalɔŋ	iɲɛ̂n
Bak, Manjaku-Papel	Papel	o-loŋ	ŋ-puɡus	ŋ-ɟenʂ	ŋ-uakr	k-ɲene	paaɟ	ɟand	bakari	k-ɲeŋ k-loŋ	o-diseɲene
Cangin	Laalaa	wi̘ːno̘ː	kɐnɐk	kɐːhɐj	niːkiːs	jə̘tu̘ːs	jitnɛːnɔː	jitnɐkɐnɐk	jitnɐkɐːhɐj	jitnɐniːkiːs	dɐːŋkɛh
Cangin	Ndut	yinë	ana	éeyë	iniil	iip	pëenë	paana	peeye	payniil	sabboo
Cangin	Noon	ˈwiːnɔ: / ˈwitnɔː	ˈkanak	ˈkaːhaj	ˈnɪkɪːs	ˈjətu̘ːs	jɪtˈnɪːnɔː	jɪtnaˈkanak	jɪtnaˈkaːhaj	jɪtnaˈnɪkɪːs	ˈdaːŋkah
Cangin	Palor	yino	ana	eye	iniil	iip	poyno	paana	peeye	payniil	saɓo
Cangin	Saafi-Saafi	ˈjiːnɔ	ˈkanak̚	ˈkaːhay	ˈniːkis	jaːtus	ˌjiːs na ˈjiːno	ˌjiːs na ˈkanak̚	ˌjiːs na ˈkaːhay	ˌjiːs na ˈniːkis	ˈndaŋkiaːh
Mbulungish-Nalu	Mbulungish	kiben	ʃidi / tʃidi	ʃitɛt / tʃitɛt	ʃinɛŋ / tʃinɛŋ	susɑ	sɑkben	sɑkdi	sɑktɛt	sɑknɛŋ	ɛtɛlɛ
Mbulungish-Nalu	Nalu	deːndɪk	bilɛ	paːt	biːnaːŋ	teːduŋ	teːduŋ ti ndeːndɪk	teːduŋ ti bilɛ	teːduŋ ti paːt	teːduŋ ti biːnaːŋ	tɛːblɛ ~ tɛbɪlɛ
Mbulungish-Nalu	Nalu	deendek	bilɛ	paat	biinaaŋ	teedoŋ	teedoŋ ti mdeendek	teedoŋ ti bilɛ	teedoŋ ti paat	teedoŋ ti biinaaŋ	tɛɛblɛ
Limba	West-Central Limba	hantʰe	kaaye	kataati	kanaŋ	kasɔhi	kasɔŋ hantʰe	kasɔŋ kaaye	kasɔŋ kataati	kasɔŋ kanaŋ	kɔɔhi
Limba	East Limba	hantʰe	kale	katati	kanaŋ	kasɔhi	kasɔŋ hantʰe	kasɔŋ kale	kasɔŋ katati	kasɔŋ kanaŋ	kɔhi
Sua	Mansoanka	sɔn	cen	b-rar	b-nan	sɔŋɡun	sɔŋɡun də sɔnsɔn	sɔŋɡun də mcen	sɔŋɡun də mbrar	sɔŋɡun də mnan	tɛŋi
Mel, Bullom-Kissi	Bullom So	nìmbúl	nìncə́ŋ	nìnrá	nìŋnyɔ́l / -nyɔ́l	nìmán	mɛ̀m-búl	mɛ̀ncə́ŋ	mɛ̀nrá	mɛ̀nnyɔ́l	wàm
Mel, Bullom-Kissi	Sherbro	bul	tɪŋ	ræ	hyo̠l o̠ = French au in aube	mɛn	mɛn-buk	mɛn-tɪŋ	mɛn-ra	mɛn-hyo̠l	wāŋ
Mel, Bullom-Kissi	Southern Kissi	pìlɛ̀ɛ́	mùúŋ	ŋɡàá	hìɔ́ɔ́lú	ŋùɛ̀ɛ́nú	ŋǒmpûm	ŋǒmɛ́ú	ŋǒmáá	ŋǒmàhìɔ́ɔ́lú	tɔ́
Mel, Gola	Gola	ɡuùŋ	tìyèe	taai	tiinàŋ	nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ	nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ diè ɡuùŋ	nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tìyèe	nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè taai	nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tiinàŋ	zììyà
Mel, Temne, Baga	Baga Mandori	piin	marəm	masaas	maaŋkəlɛɛŋ	kəcaamət	kəcaamtr tiin	kəcaamtr marəm	kəcaamtr masaas	kəcaamtr maaŋkəlɛɛŋ	ocoo
Mel, Temne, Baga	Baga Sitemu	pin	mɛrɨŋ	maːs / mãs	maŋkɨlɛ	kɨt͡ʃamɨt	t͡ʃamɨtin	t͡ʃamɨmɛrɨŋ	t͡ʃamɨmaːs	t͡ʃamɨmaŋkɨlɛ	wɨt͡ʃɔ
Mel, Temne, Baga	Landoma	tɛ̀n	mʌ̀rəŋ	mʌ̀sas	mànkᵊlɛ	kəcàmət	kəcʌ̀ntin	kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mʌ̀rəŋ	kəcʌ̀ntᵊ̀ mʌ̀sas	kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mànkᵊlɛ	pù
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta	Temne	pín	pɨrʌ́ŋ	pɨsas	panlɛ	tamát̪	dukín	dɛrɨ́ŋ	dɛsas	dɛŋanlɛ	tɔfɔ́t
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta	Temne	pìn	pə̀rə́ŋ	pə̀sàs	pànlɛ̀	tàmàθ	dùkìn	dɛ̀rə̀ŋ	dɛ̀sàs	dɛ̀ŋànlɛ̀	tɔ̀fɔ̀t
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta	Temne	p-in	pə-rəŋ	pə-sas	p-aŋlɛ	tamath	tamath rukin	tamath dɛrəŋ	tamath rɛsasa	tamath rɛŋaŋlɛ	tɔfʌt