Varuna

Varuna is a Hindu god. He is one of the earliest deities in the pantheon, whose role underwent a significant transformation from the Vedic to the Puranic periods. In the early Vedic era, Varuna is seen as the god-sovereign, ruling the sky and embodying divine authority. He is also mentioned as the king of asuras, who gained the status of a deva, serving as the chief of the Adityas, a group of celestial deities. He maintains truth and ṛta, the cosmic and moral order, and was invoked as an omniscient ethical judge, with the stars symbolizing his watchful eyes or spies. Frequently paired with Mitra, Varuna represents the magical and speculative aspects of sovereignty, overseeing the relationship between gods and humans.
The transition from the Vedic to later periods saw Varuna's domain begin to shift from the firmament to waters. He became associated with celestial waters, marking the initial phase of his transformation. By the time of the Itihasa-Purana, Varuna had transformed into the lord of all waters, ruling over oceans, rivers, streams, and lakes. Depicted as residing in a magnificent underwater palace, akin to Poseidon in Greek mythology, he is attended by river goddesses like Ganga and Yamuna. Varuna’s earlier supremacy diminished, and he was relegated to a lesser role as a dikpala, or guardian of the western direction. He is depicted as a youthful man, mounted on Makara and holding a Pasha and a pitcher in his hands. He is depicted as having multiple wives and children, the most notable of the latter being the sages Vasishtha and Agastya.
Varuna is also mentioned in the Tamil grammar work Tolkāppiyam, as Kadalon, the god of sea and rain, and is furthermore present as a deity in Jainism. In Japanese Buddhist myth, Varuna is known as Suiten and ranks among the Twelve Devas.

Etymology

In Hindu tradition, the theonym Váruṇa is described as a derivation from the verbal root vṛ by means of a suffixal -uṇa-, for an interpretation of the name as "he who covers or binds", in reference to the cosmological ocean or river encircling the world, but also in reference to the "binding" by universal law or Ṛta.
Georges Dumézil made a cautious case for the identity of Varuna and the Greek god Ouranos at the earliest Indo-European cultural level.
The etymological identification of the name Ouranos with the Sanskrit Varuṇa is based in the derivation of both names from the PIE root *ŭer with a sense of "binding" – the Indic king-god Varuṇa binds the wicked, the Greek king-god Ouranos binds the Cyclopes. This derivation of the Greek name is now widely rejected in favour of derivation from the root *wers- "to moisten, drip".

In Vedas

Samhita

Rigveda

In the oldest Hindu scripture, Rigveda, Varuṇa is among the most prominent deities, appearing in numerous hymns, including 1.25, 2.27–30, 7.86–88, 8.8, and 9.73. Despite this frequent mention, he is the central focus of only ten hymns. Varuṇa is portrayed in four principal aspects: as a universal monarch and sovereign of the sky, the upholder of ṛta, a deity associated with water, and a wielder of māyā.
The Rigveda features Varuna as the god-king of the sky. He is described as a divine king with pure strength, abiding in the celestial firmament, where he sustains a radiant mass of light. He is credited with creating the sun’s path and is invoked to dispel suffering, liberate from sin, and shield from evil. His realm includes the movement of constellations and the moon, which obey his divine ordinances. His omniscience is central to his identity: he observes all actions through celestial spies, residing in a thousand-gated palace upon a golden throne—symbols of his pervasive awareness and authority.
In Rigveda 1.25, Varuṇa is praised for his understanding of the paths of birds, the movement of ships and winds, and the secrets of time and space. Hymns characterize him as a sovereign deity, intimately acquainted with both the sacred and the profane. According to Rigveda 10.123, Varuṇa's messenger is described as the Hiraṇyapakṣa, interpreted by some as a reference to flamingos, based on their colorful plumage and proximity to aquatic habitats. The vulture is likewise mentioned as a messenger of Yama, suggesting symbolic parallels between the two birds.
Varuṇa's foremost role is as the enforcer of ṛta, the cosmic and moral order that governs both the natural world and human conduct. Hymns such as Rigveda VII.11.1 and II.29.8 present him as a vigilant upholder of truth, who punishes transgressors while showing mercy to the penitent. Ethical instructions against killing, deceit, and gambling are linked with his domain. His ordinances are described as unshakable, akin to a mountain. Concepts closely tied to ṛta—such as vrata and dharman —are frequently associated with Varuṇa. In this context, vrata implies both divine commands and ethical imperatives, while dharman denotes sacrificial law or moral conduct. Varuṇa is accordingly called Rivan and Pūtadakṣa.
Sin is conceptualized as a breach of Varuṇa’s order, often attributed to human frailty. Hymns express remorse not only for individual wrongdoing but also for ancestral transgressions, suggesting a nascent idea of inherited guilt. Despite his role as punisher, Varuṇa is often invoked for forgiveness, protection from evil, and relief from fear and dreams. He is described as both a judge and a healer, bearing “a thousand remedies” alongside weapons to punish sin.
Varuṇa’s association with water is both cosmological and symbolic. He presides over Apah, the primeval waters representing the matrix of creation. Hymns such as Rigveda VII.49.4 describe these waters as celestial and purifying. Varuṇa is also called Sindhu-pati, sharing this title with Mitra. These waters are the source of the universe, acting as both creative womb and sacred energy. In later Vedic texts, the waters called Viraj are described as Varuṇa’s consorts, representing prakṛti, and Varuṇa himself is termed an Asura, denoting "possessor of māyā" or vital force, without the later demonic connotation.
Varuṇa’s use of māyā—his divine creative power—is a recurring theme in the Rigveda. It refers to his capacity to shape the cosmos and enforce ṛta. Hymns in Mandala VIII describe him as embracing night and measuring the earth with the sun. Through māyā, Varuṇa becomes not only the enforcer of law but also a cosmic architect.

Combined descriptions: ''Mitra–Varuṇa''

Varuṇa is frequently paired with Mitra in the compound Mitra–Varuṇa, appearing prominently in the Rigveda. Together, they preside over moral and cosmic law, and are associated with ritual, rain, and natural cycles. Both deities are referred to as Asuras, though also addressed as Devas, reflecting fluid theological roles. According to myths, Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vritra.
Mitra–Varuṇa are described as youthful monarchs clad in glistening garments, residing in a golden palace with a thousand pillars and gates. They are lords of rivers, rain, and heavenly order, sending dew and bountiful waters, and punishing falsehood with disease. Their sun is described as their "eye", and their cosmic chariot moves across the sky via solar rays. Possessing divine spies and secret knowledge, they maintain ṛta and oversee oaths and societal order. According to myth, the sages Vashistha and Agastya were born from their shared semen, which they deposited into a pitcher after seeing the celestial nymph Urvashi.
Scholar Doris Srinivasan highlights the ambiguous and dualistic nature of Mitra–Varuṇa, comparing it to the Rudra-Shiva pairing. Both Varuṇa and Rudra are described as omniscient guardians, capable of both wrath and grace. In Rigveda 5.70, the Mitra–Varuṇa pair is even called Rudra. According to Samuel Macey and other scholars, Varuna had been the more ancient Indo-Aryan deity in 2nd millennium BCE, who gave way to Rudra in the Hindu pantheon, and Rudra-Shiva became both "timeless and the god of time".

Yajuraveda

In the Yajurveda, Varuṇa maintains his exalted status as guardian of ṛta and sovereign of the waters. He is portrayed as a moral overseer who casts his noose upon transgressors and is invoked as both judge and healer. His role expands to include health and medicine, and he is referred to as the “patron deity of physicians.” In the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, he is described as possessing “a hundred, a thousand remedies,” echoing earlier Ṛgvedic hymns linking him to herbs and healing. His capacity and association with "all comprehensive knowledge" is also found in the Atharvaveda.
Varuṇa resides in celestial waters described as pure, nourishing, and maternal. These waters are identified with Mahatsalilam, linked to Aditi—the cosmic mother and creative force. As lord of these waters, Varuṇa becomes a symbol of cosmic law, creation, and protection. The waters not only represent physical phenomena but also the metaphysical substratum of reality.
His association with law and conscience continues through imagery such as the “three bonds” that bind the sinner—interpreted as natural forces like cloud, lightning, and thunder—symbolizing physical and moral consequences. Worshippers pray for release from these bonds and seek reconciliation with ṛta. As in earlier texts, Varuṇa is revered with a mixture of fear and devotion, embodying both justice and mercy.
In Yajurveda 8.59, it is stated: “In fact, Varuṇa is Viṣṇu and Viṣṇu is Varuṇa, and hence the auspicious offering is to be made to these deities.” This reflects theological fluidity in the identification of divine roles and emphasizes Varuṇa’s integration into broader Vedic pantheon.
Ritually, Varuṇa is associated with the west and is offered a black ram with a white foot during sacrifices, symbolizing concealment and dominion over night.