List of ancient watermills


This list of ancient watermills presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in classical antiquity, including the Hellenistic period through the Roman period up until circa 500 AD.
The water wheel and watermill are the earliest instances of machines harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour. As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.
The invention of the watermill is a question open to scholarly discussion, but is generally agreed to have occurred in the ancient Near East, either before or during the Hellenistic period. In the subsequent Roman period, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel. Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain, crushing ore, sawing stones and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.
An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought. The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves. Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained primarily a rural phenomenon, it began gaining importance in urban environments during late antiquity.
The data below spans the period until circa 500 AD. The vast majority are dated to Roman times.

Earliest evidence

Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.
DateWater-powered mill typesReference Modern country
Possibly before c. 350 BCPossible horizontal-wheeled corn millPersian Empire Iran, Iraq, Turkey
Possibly first half of 3rd century BCHorizontal-wheeled millByzantium Turkey
Possibly c. 240 BCVertical-wheeled millAlexandria Egypt
Before 71 BC?Grain-mill Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556Turkey
40/10 BCUndershot wheel millVitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
40/10 BCPossible kneading machineVitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
20 BC/10 ADOvershot wheel millAntipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6Unspecified
c. 20 ADTrip hammerHuan Tan, Xin LunChina
73/4 ADPossible fulling millAntiochSyria
2nd century ADMultiple mill complexBarbegal millFrance
Late 2nd century ADBreastshot wheel millLes Martres-de-VeyreFrance
Second half of 3rd century ADSawmill; crank and connecting rod system with gear trainHierapolis sarcophagusTurkey
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADTurbine millChemtou and TestourTunisia
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADPossible tanning millSaepinumItaly
?Possible furnaceMarseilleFrance

Written sources

In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.
ReferenceLocationDateType of evidenceComments on
Ammianus Marcellinus, 18.8.11Amida359 ADHistoryMultiple mill complex
Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6Unspecified20 BC/10 ADPoemEarliest reference to overshot wheel mill
Ausonius, Mosella, 362–364Ruwer riverc. 370 ADPoemWater-powered marble saws and grain-mills
BeroeaMacedonia2nd century ADDecreeTax revenue from watermills
Cedrenus, Historiarum compendium, p. 295 Indiac. 325 ADHistory
CG-CI, pp. 86–90, no. 41Corinth6th century AD
CIL, III, 5866Günzburg1st/3rd century ADEpigraphyMiller’s guild
CIL, III, 14969, 2Promona1st/4th century ADEpigraphy
CIL, VI, 1711c. 480 ADEpigraphy
Codex Justinianus, XI, 43, 10, 3Constantinople474/491 ADLegal code
Codex Theodosianus, XIV, 15.4398 ADLegal code
Diocletian, XV, 54301 ADPrice edict
Euchromius, VII, pp. 138–9, no. 169Sardis4th to 5th/6th century ADEpigraphyWatermill engineer
Gregory of Nyssa, In Ecclesiasten, III, 656A Mignec. 370/390 ADTheologyWater-powered marble saws?
Huan Tan, Xin Lun Chinac. 20 ADTreatiseTrip hammer
John Cassian, Conlationes Patrum, I, 18426 AD?Theology
LetterEgypt5th century ADPossible watermill
Libanius, Or. 4.29Antioch380s ADRhetoricTax on watermills
MAMA, VII, p. 70, no. 305, lines 29–32Orcistusc. 329 ADEpigraphyTown privilege
Mar. Aur. Apollodotos KalliklianosHierapolisSecond half of 3rd century ADEpigraphyMember of guild of water-millers
MolitorChâteauneuf1st century ADEpigraphy
Palladius, Opus agriculturae, I, 41, 4th/5th century ADTreatiseUse of waste water to drive watermills
Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97Italyc. 70 ADEncyclopediaWater-powered pestles
Sabinianus I, 18c. 450 ADHagiography
Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556CabiraBefore 71 BC?Geography
Talmud, Shabbat, I, 5Before 70 AD?
Two inscriptionsAntioch73/4 ADEpigraphyPossibly fulling mills
Visigothic Code, VII, 2, 12 and VIII, 4, 29–30Late 5th century ADLegal code
Vita S. Romani abbatis, 17–18c. 450 ADHagiographyWater-powered pestles
Vitruvius, X, 5.240/10 BCEngineeringEarliest description of undershot wheel mill
Vitruvius, X, 5.240/10 BCEngineeringPossible kneading machine

Graphical representations

This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.
Place CountryDateType of evidenceIdentification/Remains
Coemeterium Maius at RomeItalyLate 3rd century AD?Wall painting
UticaTunisia4th century ADMosaic
Great Palace of ConstantinopleTurkeyc. 450/500 ADMosaicOne probable and one possible representation
Hierapolis sarcophagusTurkeySecond half of 3rd century ADReliefWater-powered stone sawmill; earliest known crank and connecting rod system

Archaeological finds

Watermill sites

Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.
SiteCountryDateIdentification/Remains
Mouzaïa des Mines, nearAlgeriaUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Oued Bou ArdounAlgeriaPossibly 2nd to 3rd century ADUnspecified remains
Oued Bou Ya'koubAlgeriaUnspecifiedDrop-tower mill
Oued MellahAlgeriaPossibly 4th century ADDrop-tower mill
Ardleigh, Spring Valley MillEnglandUnspecifiedPossible Roman watermill site including millstones
ChestersEnglandPossibly 3rd century ADMill-race, mill-chamber, tail-race, millstones
FullertonEnglandUnspecifiedTwo watermills
Haltwhistle Burn HeadEngland225–70 ADEntire establishment
Ickham IEngland150–280 ADMill-race, mill-building, fragments of millstones
Ickham IIEngland3rd and 4th centuries ADMill-race, sluice-gate, mill-building, fragments of millstones
NettletonEngland230 ADMill-race, sluice-gate, wheel-pit, tail-race
WherwellEnglandLate 3rd or early 4th century ADMill-channel, mill-building, fragments of millstones
WillowfordEnglandLate 2nd or 3rd century AD?Water-channels, sluices, fragments of millstones
Barbegal millFrance2nd century ADMultiple mill complex with sixteen overshot wheels on two mill-races, fed by aqueduct
Fontvieille, Calade du CastelletFrance5th/6th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
GannesFrancePresumably 4th or 5th century ADHorizontal water-wheel
La BourseFranceLate 5th century ADRemains of waterwheel and curved trough.
La CrauFrance2nd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
La Garde FranceUnspecifiedVertical-wheeled mill
LattesFranceUnspecifiedUnspecified
Le Cannet-des-MauresFrance5th century ADTwo horizontal-wheeled mills
Les Arcs France2nd/3rd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
Les Martres-de-Veyre IFrance1st century ADUnspecified remains
Les Martres-de-Veyre IIFranceLate 2nd century ADEntire establishment; breastshot wheel
Lyon-VaiseFranceLate 1st century AD abandonedMillstones, mill-chamber timbers
Paulhan I–IIIFrance40/50–early 3rd century ADThree consecutive mills
PézenasFrance2nd century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
Saint-DoulchardFrance1st century ADWooden paddles.
TaradeauFranceLate 2nd–4th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
BobingenGermany117/138 ADPosts, boards, mill-race
DasingGermanyMerovingianTimber posts and mill race, remains of wheel and paddles, millstones.
IndenGermanyEnd of 1st century BCMillstones, wheel-shaft bearings, paddle fragments
Lösnich IGermany2nd/4th century AD?Mill-race, wheel-pit, fragment of a millstone
Lösnich IIGermany2nd/4th century AD?Mill-race
Munich-PerlachGermanyEnd of 2nd century ADMill-chamber, mill-race, millstone fragments; possibly duplex drive
Athens, Agora IGreece5th and 6th centuries ADAqueduct, wheel-pit, mill-chamber, tail-race
Athens, Agora IIGreece460/75 to c.580 ADEntire establishment
Athens, Agora IIIGreeceUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Shushtar Historical Hydraulic SystemIran3rd century ADAbout 40 watermills
El-QabuIsraelPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
En ShoqeqIsrael2nd century ADMasonry dam with mills
Farod I–IIIIsrael5th or 6th century ADThree drop-tower mills
Farod IV–VIsraelUnspecifiedTwo mills
Ma'agan MichaelIsrael3rd century AD?Masonry dam, with eleven mills
Nahal TanninimIsraelEarly 4th/mid-7th century ADSix vertical-wheeled mills with duplex drives and underdriven Pompeian millstones
Wadi Fejjas I–IIIIsraelProbably RomanThree drop-tower mills
Wadi SerrarIsraelProbably RomanUnspecified remains
YarkonIsrael2nd century ADUnspecified remains
OderzoItaly2nd century ADMill-race
Rome, Baths of Caracalla IItalyBetween 212/235 to mid-3rd century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, Baths of Caracalla IIItalyMid-3rd century to 5th century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, JaniculumItalyEarly 3rd century ADAqueducts, reservoirs, sluices, millstones
SaepinumItalyLate 3rd or early 4th century ADAqueduct, sluice-gates, wheel-pit, tail-race. Recently identified as tanning mill.
San Giovanni di RuotiItalyEarly 1st century ADUnspecified remains
VenafroItalyPossibly early EmpireUndershot water wheel, millstones
GerasaJordan6th century ADWater-powered stone sawmill with two four-bladed saws; crank and connecting rod system without gear train
JarashJordan527-65 ADWheel-pit walls, bearing emplacements, supply cistern, partly sawn stone drums.
Wadi al-HasaJordanProbably late RomanAt least nineteen possible drop-tower mills
Oued es SoueïrMoroccoUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
AvenchesSwitzerland57/58–80 ADMill-race timbers
Rodersdorf, Klein BüelSwitzerland1st century ADMillstone, mill-race
PalmyraSyriaPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
ChemtouTunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
TestourTunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
ColossaeTurkeyUnspecifiedPossible multiple-mill complex
Kurşunlu Waterfall, near PergeTurkeyUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Lamus riverTurkeyApparently late antiqueSeven horizontal-wheeled mills