Proto-Niger–Congo language
?Proto-Niger–Congo is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language of the proposed Niger–Congo language family.
Validity
Unlike Nilo-Saharan, the Niger–Congo language phylum is accepted by mainstream linguists and Africanists. Atlantic–Congo is accepted by Glottolog 4.4.Origin
Blench proposes that Proto-Niger–Congo originated about 11,000-10,000 years before present in the western part of the "Green Sahara" of Africa, and that its dispersal can be correlated with the spread of the bow and arrow by migrating hunter-gatherers.Phonology
Tones
Larry Hyman reconstructs two contrastive level tones for Proto-Niger–Congo, which are:- *H
- *L
Syllabic structure
Proto-Niger–Congo is traditionally assumed to have had a disyllabic root structure similar to that of Proto-Bantu, namely V-CVCV. However, Roger Blench proposes a trisyllabic syllabic structure for Proto-Niger–Congo roots, while Konstantin Pozdniakov suggests that the main prototypical structure of Proto-Niger–Congo roots is *CVC, along with disyllabic, trisyllabic, and other variations.Morphology
Noun classes
Noun classes can be reconstructed for Proto-Atlantic–Congo, and these are sometimes assumed to be Proto-Niger–Congo. Noun class prefixes in Proto-Atlantic–Congo include:- noun class 1: prefix for human singular
- noun class 2: prefix for human plural
- noun class 6A: prefix for liquid and mass nouns
| Branch | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6a | 6a |
| Kordofanian | *gu- | humans | *gu- | *j- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *ŋu- | ‘egg’ | *ŋ- | liquids |
| Atlantic | *gu- | humans | *gʊ- | *Ci- | ‘trees’ | *de- | *ga- | ‘head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Oti–Volta | *-ʊ | humans | *-bʊ | *-Ci | ‘tree’ | *-ɖɪ | *-a | ‘egg, head’ | *-ma | liquids |
| Ghana–Togo | *o- | humans | *o- | *i- | ‘firewood’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *N- | liquids |
| Benue–Congo | *u- | humans | *u- | *i- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu | *mu- | humans | *mu- | *mi- | ‘tree’ | *i̧- | *ma- | ‘egg, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu | *ju- | *gu- | *gi- | *di- | *ga- | *ga- |
Verbal extensions
Below are some Proto-Niger/Atlantic–Congo, Proto-Bantu, and Proto-Atlantic verbal extensions :| Type of suffix | Proto-Niger/Atlantic–Congo | Proto-Bantu | Proto-Atlantic |
| applicative | *-de | *-ɪd | *-ed |
| causative | *-ci, *-ti | *-ic-i | *-an |
| passive | *-o | *-ɪb-ʊ | *-V |
| reciprocal | *-na | *-an | *-ad |
| reversive | *-to | *-ʊd | *-ɪt |
For example, in Swahili:
- verb root: penda 'to love'
- *reciprocal: pendana 'to love each other'
- *applicative: pendea 'to love for'
- *causative: pendeza 'to please'
Pronouns
Güldemann's Proto-Niger–Congo pronoun reconstructions, for the first and second person pronouns, are given below.| singular | plural | |
| 1st person | *mVfront | *TVclose |
| 2nd person | *mVback | *NVclose |
Babaev is a detailed survey of pronouns in Niger–Congo languages, along with detailed reconstructions.
Numerals
Konstantin Pozdniakov has published a detailed reconstruction of Proto-Niger–Congo numerals, as well as comprehensive reconstructions for the lower-order branches of the Niger–Congo phylum. Pozdniakov and Güldemann reconstruct the following numerals for Proto-Niger–Congo.| Numeral | Proto-Niger–Congo | Proto-Niger–Congo |
| 1 | *ku--di, *do, *gbo/*kpo | |
| 2 | *ba-di | *Ri |
| 3 | *tat / *tath | *ta |
| 4 | *nai | *na |
| 5 | *tan, *nu | *nU |
| 6 | 5+1 | |
| 7 | 5+2 | |
| 8 | *nanai | |
| 9 | 5+4 | |
| 10 | *pu / *fu | |
| 20 | < ‘person’ |
The numerals 6-9 are formed by combining lower numerals, while ‘20’ is derived from ‘person’.
Lexicon
There is currently no comprehensive, systematic reconstruction for Proto-Niger–Congo lexical roots. Nevertheless, quasi-reconstructions have been attempted by Roger Blench, who is currently compiling a Niger–Congo etymological dictionary. Some examples from Blench :| Proto-Niger–Congo | Gloss |
| *keɗeri | to split, cut, break |
| *suŋguri | to wash |
| #tokori | chew |
| *siŋguri | rub, smear |
| *ɗumigbi | bury, dig, grave, plant |
| #tɪ́gbʊ́rɪ́ | head |
| #gbukuru | tortoise, turtle |
| #goŋgboro | chest |
| #kpagara | leg, foot |
| #kuduŋo | knee |
| #-bugbulu | hole |
| #kVnV | one |
| *tunuru | five |
's reconstruction of Proto-Western Nigritic was published in 2 volumes in 1976 and 1977.
Plants
Blench lists various Niger–Congo quasi-reconstructions for plants with important economic uses. These roots are generally widespread areal forms, with some of them also found in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages. A few forms are also added from some of Blench's other works.Other plant names with widespread areal distributions in West Africa:
- Milicia excelsa: odum, iroko
- Funtumia elastica : o-fruntum
- Sesamum indicum : #-sVwa
- Abelmoschus esculentus : ɔ́kʊrʊ, ɪkɪabʊ, akɛnɛta
Animals
Below are some quasi-reconstructions of Niger–Congo areal forms for animal names given by Blench, with some reconstructions also based on Blench.| Niger–Congo form | Common name | Distribution |
| #jata | lion | Mande-Congo |
| #guni | lion | areal form |
| #-bungu | hyena | Volta-Congo |
| #-biti | hyena | Proto-Benue-Kwa |
| #murum | hyena | Central Nigeria |
| #gbali | elephant | Mande-Congo |
| #-nyi | elephant | Benue-Kwa ?; also means 'tusk' |
| #-solu | elephant | Volta-Congo |
| #-bu | dog | Proto-Niger–Congo |
| #kuru | crocodile | Niger-Congo |
| #budi | goat | Niger-Congo |
| #-ga | village weaver | Benue-Congo |