List of monarchs of Iran

The monarchs of Iran, including three queens regnant, ruled for over two and a half millennia, beginning as early as the 8th century BC and enduring until the 20th century AD. The earliest Iranian monarch is generally considered to have been either Deioces of the Median dynasty or Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty. The last Iranian monarch was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of the Pahlavi dynasty, who was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution. Since then, Iran has been governed by theocratic supreme leaders.
In classical antiquity, Iran reached the peak of its power and prestige under the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Egypt and parts of Southeast Europe in the west to the Indus Valley and parts of Central Asia in the east. By 323 BC, the Achaemenid Empire's territories had been conquered by the Macedonian Empire during the Alexander the Great">Alexander Balas">Alexander the Great, bringing Iran into the Hellenistic sphere. In the Wars of the Diadochi, the Seleucid Empire assumed control of Iran. Native Iranian rule was revived with the expansion of Parthian Empire in the Seleucid-Parthian Wars. The Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which oversaw a golden age in the history of Iranian civilization and existed until the Arab conquest of Iran.
Medieval Iran alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate, which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate and then by the Abbasid Caliphate. Under the Abbasids, many Iranian figures took part in shaping the Islamic Golden Age, while also leveraging the decline of Arab power to establish independent dynasties and kingdoms – those including the Saffarids, Samanids, Ziyarids and Buyids – thus allowing their native languages to flourish and reviving Sasanian royal iconography and ideology in what became known as the Iranian Intermezzo. In the 11th century, Iran was conquered by the Seljuk Empire, which was Turkic in origin, but culturally Persianate. Further conquests by entities coming from Central Asia occurred over the course of the next five centuries, most notably including the Turkic Khwarazmian Empire, the Mongol Empire, the post-Mongol Ilkhanate, and the Turco-Mongol Timurid Empire. Most of the Timurid territory in Iran was later conquered by the Qara Qoyunlu, followed by the Aq Qoyunlu, both are Turkic tribal confederations.
The year 1501 is considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, as the Safavid dynasty rose to power and oversaw the conversion of Iran to Shia Islam, marking the region's largest religious shift since the Arab conquests. The collapse of the Safavids led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule of Iran contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the Afghan-origin Hotak dynasty. Nader Shah replaced these with the Afsharid Empire, but after his assassination in 1747, the Afsharids competed with the Zand dynasty under Karim Khan Zand and his successors for supremacy. Iran was eventually reunified by the Qajar dynasty, which was succeeded by the Pahlavi dynasty of Reza Khan. The Pahlavi dynasty was the last to reign before the Iranian monarchy was abolished in 1979.

Ancient Iran ( 727 BC–AD 651)

Medes ( 727–550 BC)

The Median dynasty is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state. Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians. Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire. There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself. The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus.
No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, later used by the Achaemenids. Ecbatana was the Median capital.

Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)

The Achaemenid dynasty originated as local rulers of Anshan under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "Achaemenes". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is Cyrus I, king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC. The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I's son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I's son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire, the largest ever Iranian state.
The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, xšāyaθiya dahyūnām. The royal title varied in other parts of the empire. The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon, Bactra, and Persepolis.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
	Cyrus I	620–590 BC	Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler
	Cambyses I	590–559 BC	Son of Cyrus I
	Cyrus II	559–550 BC	Son of Cambyses I

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
	Artaxerxes V	July 330 – spring 329 BC	Satrap of Bactria, part of the Achaemenid dynasty. Murdered Darius III and proclaimed himself as his successor, ruling several eastern satrapies in opposition to Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic rule (331–129 BC)

Alexander's empire (331–305 BC)

The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, in 331–329 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.
Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'. His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead basileus. To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia". The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is basileus. Alexander ruled his empire from Babylon and planned to establish Babylon and Alexandria in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals. From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
	Alexander the Great	1 October 331 – 10/11 June 323 BC	Conquered the Achaemenid Empire
	Philip Arrhidaeus	June 323 – late 317 BC	Brother of Alexander the Great
	Alexander Aegus	August 323 – 309 BC	Son of Alexander the Great

Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC)

The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the Seleucids, descendants of the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian noblewoman Apama. Seleucus seized most of the east, including Babylonia, in the Wars of the Diadochi and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards. After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king.
The main royal title used by the Seleucids was basileus, as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms. Only two Seleucid rulers used the greater megas basileus, the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources. The Seleucids at first ruled from Seleucia in Mesopotamia, though Antioch was soon made the main capital.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
	Seleucus I Nicator	305 – September 280 BC	Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards and proclaimed king in 305 BC.
	Antiochus I Soter	September 280 – 261 BC	Son of Seleucus I
	Antiochus II Theos	261–246 BC	Son of Antiochus I
	Seleucus II Callinicus	246–226 BC	Son of Antiochus II
	Seleucus III Ceraunus	226–223 BC	Son of Seleucus II
	Antiochus III the Great	223–187 BC	Son of Seleucus II
	Seleucus IV Philopator	187–175 BC	Son of Antiochus III
	Antiochus IV Epiphanes	175 – late 164 BC	Son of Antiochus III
	Antiochus V Eupator	Late 164 – 162 BC	Son of Antiochus IV
	Demetrius I Soter	162–150 BC	Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV.
	Alexander Balas	152–145 BC	Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the Roman Empire.
	Antiochus VI Dionysus	145–142 BC	Son of Alexander Balas
	Demetrius II Nicator	147–139 BC	Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death.
	Antiochus VII Sidetes	139–129 BC	Son of Demetrius I

Parthian Empire ( 250/247 BC–224 AD)

The Arsacids of Parthia, initially Seleucid vassals, originated as leaders of the eastern Iranian Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes. The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran. Parthian control of Iran was secured through the 142 BC conquest of Babylonia. Although fighting continued for years, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire, which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC.
The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state. Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of Vologases I. Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder as a title. Their coins also have the legend krny. From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used basileus megas. Mithridates II adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings'. After him, this title was used only by Mithridates IV and Orodes II before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of Phraates IV onwards. The title was used in its Persian form after Greek ceased being used. The first Parthian capital was at Nisa in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to Qumis and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Ray.
This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the list of monarchs of Parthia.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
	Arsaces I	250/247–217 BC	Conquered Parthia from the Seleucid satrap Andragoras
	Arsaces II	217–191 BC	Son of Arsaces I
	Priapatius	191–176 BC	Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I
	Phraates I	176–171 BC	Son of Priapatius
	Mithridates I	171–142 BC	Son of Priapatius

Sasanian Empire (224 AD–651 AD)

The Sasanian dynasty originated as kings of Persis, a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast Ardashir I led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory. The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the Zoroastrian religion.
Sasanian kings continued to use the title šāhān šāh. The title was extended by Ardashir to šāhān šāh ērān and extended again by his son Shapur I to šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān. Sasanian queens ruled with the title bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān.' Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Ardashir I
the Unifier 224 – May 240
Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire
Shapur I May 240 – May 270
Son of Ardashir I
Hormizd I May 270 – June 271
Son of Shapur I
Bahram I June 271 – 274
Son of Shapur I
Bahram II 274–293
Son of Bahram I
Bahram III 293
Son or cousin of Bahram II
Narseh 293–302
Son of Shapur I
Hormizd II 303–309/310
Son of Narseh
Adur Narseh
309/310
Son of Hormizd II
Shapur II
the Great 310–379
Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth. The longest-reigning Iranian monarch.
Ardashir II
the Beneficent 379–383
Son of Hormizd II
Shapur III 383–388
Son of Shapur II
Bahram IV 388–399
Son of Shapur II
Yazdegerd I
the Sinner 399–420
Son of Shapur III
Shapur IV 420
Son of Yazdegerd I
Khosrow 420
Son of Bahram IV
Bahram V
the Onager 420–438
Son of Yazdegerd I
Yazdegerd II 438–457
Son of Bahram V
Hormizd III 457
Son of Yazdegerd II
Peroz I 457–484
Son of Yazdegerd II
Balash 484–488
Son of Yazdegerd II
Kavad I 488–497
Son of Peroz
Jamasp 497–499
Son of Peroz
Kavad I 499–531
Restored to the throne with Hepthalite support
Khosrow I
Anushirvan 531–579
Son of Kavad I
Hormizd IV 579–590
Son of Khosrow I
Bahram VI Chobin 590–591
General of Parthian descent
Khosrow II
Parviz June 590 – 28 February 628
Son of Hormizd IV
Vistahm 591–597
General of Parthian descent and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king.
Kavad II 28 February 628 – 628
Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father
Ardashir III 628–630
Cousin or son of Kavad II
Shahrbaraz 630
General of Parthian descent
Khosrow III 630
Nephew of Khosrow II
Boran 630
Daughter of Khosrow II. Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
Shapur V 630
Son of Shahrbaraz
Azarmidokht 630–631
Daughter of Khosrow II. Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
Farrukh Hormizd V 631–632
General of Parthian descent. Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal.
Hormizd VI 630–632
Grandson of Khosow II. Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at Nisibis.
Khosrow IV 632
Great-nephew of Hormizd IV
Peroz II 632–632/633
Brother of Khosrow IV
Farrukhzad Khosrow V 632/633– 633
Brother of Hormizd V
Yazdegerd III''' 633–651
Grandson of Khosrow II
Minor kingdoms and dynasties
The Fratarakas, rulers/governors in Persis under the Seleucid Empire
Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms, various local vassal dynasties of the Parthian Empire
* The kings of Persis, vassal kings in Persis under the Parthian Empire
Medieval Iran (651–1501)
The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501. In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the Middle Ages.
The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee.
Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861)
Rashidun Caliphate (638–661)
The Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian Asoristan in 633. In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia The empire itself was conquered in 640–650. By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained Bactria. Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Rashid caliphs. Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later Umayyad Caliphate, they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.
The style of the caliphs was amīr al-mu'minīn.' An additional title, khalīfat Allāh, was also introduced beginning with Uthman.' The caliphate was initially ruled from Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to Kufa in Iraq.
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
The Umayyad Caliphate was established by Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs, leading to the civil war known as the First Fitna. Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.
Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh.' The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II.'
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Mu'awiya I July/August 661 – April/May 680
Seized power in the First Fitna
Yazid I April/May 680 – 11 November 683
Son of Mu'awiya I
Mu'awiya II 11 November 683 – 22 June 684
Son of Yazid I
Marwan I 22 June 684 – 7 May 685
Cousin of Mu'awiya I
Abd al-Malik 7 May 685 – 8 October 705
Son of Marwan I
al-Walid I 8 October 705 – 25 February 715
Son of Abd al-Malik
Sulayman 25 February 715 – 22 September 717
Son of Abd al-Malik
Umar II 22 September 717 – 5 February 720
Grandson of Marwan I
Yazid II 5 February 720 – 28 January 724
Son of Abd al-Malik
Hisham 28 January 724 – 6 February 743
Son of Abd al-Malik
al-Walid II 6 February 743 – 16 April 744
Son of Yazid II
Yazid III 16 April – 20 September 744
Son of al-Walid I
Ibrahim 20 September – 25 November 744
Son of al-Walid I
Marwan II 25 November 744 – 750
Grandson of Marwan I
Abbasid Caliphate (749–861)
Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.
Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh.' The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded Baghdad in 762.'
Portrait Name Reign Succession
al-Saffah 6 November 749 – 9 June 754
Seized power in the Abbasid revolution
al-Mansur 9 June 754 – 7 October 775
Brother of al-Saffrah
al-Mahdi 7 October 775 – 4 August 785
Son of al-Mansur
al-Hadi 4 August 785 – 15 September 786
Son of al-Mahdi
Harun al-Rashid 15 September 786 – 24 March 809
Son of al-Mahdi
al-Amin 24 March 809 – 27 September 813
Son of Harun al-Rashid
al-Ma'mun 27 September 813 – 7 August 833
Son of Harun al-Rashid
al-Mu'tasim 7 August 833 – 5 January 842
Son of Harun al-Rashid
al-Wathiq 5 January 842 – 10 August 847
Son of al-Mu'tasim
al-Mutawakkil 10 August 847 – 11 December 861
Son of al-Mu'tasim. Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power.
Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090)
The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties, the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".
The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties. This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee and Mahendrarajah list the major dynasties of the period as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Ziyarids, Buyids, and Samanids. Daryaee also includes the Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.
Tahirids (821–873)
The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not de jure independent; Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad. The Tahirids were Arabized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero Rostam.
As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title amir. The Tahirids initially ruled from Merv. The capital was transferred to Nishapur under Abdallah.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Tahir I 821–822
Granted governorship of Khorasan by Caliph al-Ma'mun for his service in the Fourth Fitna
Talha 822–828
Son of Tahir I
Abdallah 828–845
Son of Tahir I
Tahir II 845–862
Son of Abdallah
Muhammad 862–873
Son of Tahir II
Saffarids (867–1002)
The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in Sistan. Although the dynastic founder Ya'qub claimed Sasanian descent, the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians and their power was attained solely through military might. The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and Amr I, under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.
Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title amir. Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital.
Samanids (875–999)
The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth. In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of Transoxiana and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler. Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids. The Samanids claimed descent from Bahram VI Chobin.
Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title amir. Mansur I assumed the style šāhānšāh as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids. Mansur I's son, Nuh II, also used šāhānšāh. The Samanid capital was at Samarkand and then at Bukhara.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Nasr I 875 – August/September 892
Appointed governor of Transoxiana by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875
Ismail August/September 892 – 24 November 907
Brother of Nasr I
Ahmad
the Martyred Amir November/December 907 – 24 January 914
Son of Ismail
Nasr II
the Fortunate January 914 – March/April 943
Son of Ahmad
Nuh I April/May 943 – 954/955
Son of Nasr II
Abd al-Malik I 954/955–961/962
Son of Nuh I
Mansur I
the Righteous Amir 961/962–976/977
Son of Nuh I
Nuh II 976/977 – 22 July 997
Son of Mansur I
Mansur II July/August 997 – 1 February 999
Son of Nuh II
Abd al-Malik II February 999 – 999
Son of Nuh II
Ziyarids (927–1090/1091)
The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935. Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Muslim relatives.
Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title šāhānšāh since later Buyid writers attribute the title to him. Later Ziyarid rulers used the title amir. The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including Ray, Amol, and Gorgan.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Mardavij 927/928–934/935
Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran
Vushmgir 934/935–966/967
Brother of Mardavij
Bisutun 966/967–977/978
Son of Vushmgir
Qabus 977/978–1012/1013
Son of Vushmgir
Manuchihr 1012/1013–1029/1030
Son of Qabus
Anushirvan 1029/1030–1049/1050
Son of Manuchihr
Keikavus 1049/1050–? Cousin of Anushirvan
Gilanshah ?–1090/1091 Son of Keikavus
Buyids (934–1062)
The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under Mardavij. After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm. The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself. The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V, almost certainly a forgery.
Individual Buyid rulers were styled as amir. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title amīr al-omarāʾ. The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under Rukn al-Dawla and his son 'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title šāhānšāh. This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.
This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee. For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Imad al-Dawla
933/934–949/950
Son of a Daylamite chief. Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state.
Mu'izz al-Dawla
935/936–949/950
Brother of Imad al-Dawla
Rukn al-Dawla
946/947 – 16 September 976
Brother of Imad al-Dawla
'Adud al-Dawla
949/950 – 26 March 983
Son of Rukn al-Dawla
Sharaf al-Dawla
March/April 983 – September/October 989
Son of 'Adud al-Dawla
Samsam al-Dawla
989–998
Son of 'Adud al-Dawla
Baha al-Dawla
998–1012
Son of 'Adud al-Dawla
Sultan al-Dawla
1012–1024
Son of Baha al-Dawla
Abu Kalijar Marzuban 1024–1048
Son of Sultan al-Dawla
Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun 1048–1062
Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban
Ghaznavids (977–1040)
The Ghaznavids were of Turkic slave origin. In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander Sabuktigin seized power in Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm. Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III.
Sabuktigin ruled with the title al-ḥājeb al-ajall. From 999 onwards, the Ghaznavids ruled with the title sulṭān. Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Sabuktigin 977/978–997/998
Seized power in Ghazni
Ismail 997/998–998
Son of Sabuktigin
Mahmud 998 – 30 April 1030
Son of Sabuktigin
Muhammad 1030
Son of Mahmud
Masʽud 1030 – 23 May 1040
Son of Mahmud

The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the Seljuks after the Battle of Dandanaqan. For later Ghaznavid rulers, see Ghaznavids § List of rulers.
Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508)
Seljuk Empire (1038–1194)
The Seljuk Empire was established by the Turkoman chieftain Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s. In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East, ending the Iranian Intermezzo. Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the Shahnameh.''''
From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title šāhānšāh in its Persian form, perhaps adopting it from the Buyids. Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title sulṭān and royal styles such as the Arabic malik and Persian šāh were bestowed on vassals. Šāhānšāh continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "šāhānšāh king of Islam". Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to Ray and a few years later it was moved again to Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingly unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including Baghdad, Hamadan, and Merv.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Tughril I June/July 1038 – 4 September 1063
Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran
Alp Arslan 4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072
Nephew of Tughril I
Malik-Shah I 15 December 1072 – 14 October 1092
Son of Alp Arslan
Mahmud I 14 October 1092 – 1093
Son of Malik-Shah I
Berkyaruq October/November 1092 – 22 December 1104
Son of Malik-Shah I
Malik-Shah II 22 December 1104 – February/March 1105
Son of Berkyaruq
Muhammad I Tapar February/March 1105 – 5 August 1118
Son of Malik-Shah I
Mahmud II 5 August 1118 – 11 September 1131
Son of Muhammad I Tapar. Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq.
Ahmad Sanjar 1118 – 8 May 1157
Son of Malik-Shah I. Previously Seljuk ruler in Khorasan.
Dawud December 1132/January 1133
Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq
Tughril II December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134
Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq
Mas'ud October/November 1134 – 10 October 1152
Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq
Malik-Shah III October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153
Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq
Muhammad II December 1152/January 1153 – December 1159/January 1160
Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq
Suleiman-Shah 22 March – September/October 1160
Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq
Arslan-Shah September/October 1160 – January/February 1176
Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq
Tughril III January/February 1176 – 1194
Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq
Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221)
The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent. One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans. In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.
The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm. Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Muhammad I 1096/1097 – 1127/1128
Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm
Atsiz 1127/1128 – 30 July 1156
Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal.
Il-Arslan 22 August 1156 – March 1172
Son of Atsiz
Sultan Shah 1172 – 11 December 1172
Son of Il-Arslan. Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193.
Tekish 11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200
Son of Il-Arslan. Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194.
Muhammad II 3 August 1200 – 1220/1221
Son of Tekish
Mongol Empire (1220–1259)
The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the Mongol clans. The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe. In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220 and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed. Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258.
The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title khagan. In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at Karakorum in Mongolia.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Genghis Khan 1220 – 25 August 1227
Founder of the Mongol Empire. Conquered the region around Bukhara in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran.
Ögedei Khan 13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241
Son of Genghis
Güyük Khan 24 August 1246 – April 1248
Son of Ögedei
Möngke Khan 2 May 1252 – 11 August 1259
Grandson of Genghis
Ilkhanate (1256–1388)
After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented. In much of the south-west of the empire, power fell to Hulegu Khan, who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan. Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a fatwa issued by the Shia scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli. Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule. Ghazan Khan converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.
The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ilkhan to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia. From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title pādishāh-i Īrān, sometimes extended to pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām. The version pādishāh-i Islām is also recorded. The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with Maragheh, Tabriz, and Soltaniyeh. After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, Luqman, ruled from Astarabad under Timurid suzerainty.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Hulegu Khan 1256 – 8 February 1265
Grandson of Genghis Khan. Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan.
Abaqa Khan 8 February 1265 – 1 April 1282
Son of Hulegu
Ahmad Tekuder 1 April 1282 – 10 August 1284
Son of Hulegu
Arghun Khan 11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291
Son of Abaqa
Gaykhatu 10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295
Son of Abaqa
Baydu 26 March – summer? 1295
Grandson of Hulegu
Ghazan Khan Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304
Son of Arghun
Öljaitü 11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316
Son of Arghun
Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan 16 December 1316 – 30 November 1335
Son of Öljaitü
Musa Khan 1335/1336–1336
Grandson of Baydu
Arpa Khan 1335–1336
Descendant of Tolui, the father of Hulegu
Muhammad Khan 1336–1338
Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu
Togha Temür 1337–1353
Descendant of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan
Jahan Temür 1338/1339–1340/1341
Grandson of Gaykhatu
Sati Beg 1338/1339–1339/1340
Daughter of Öljaitü. Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
Suleiman Khan 1339/1340 – 1343/1344
Great-great-grandson of Hulegu
Anushirwan Khan 1344–1356
Unknown lineage
Ghazan II 1356–1357
Son of Togha Temür
Luqman 1356–1388
Son of Togha Temür. Puppet ruler under various warlords, including Amir Vali and later Timur.
Timurid Empire (1370–1458)
The Timurid Empire was established by Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the Chagatai Khanate. In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.
During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title pādishāh-i Islām. Timur also used the style guregen to stress his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan. Pādishāh continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of sulṭān. Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Timur 9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405
Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s.
Pir Muhammad February 1405 – 1407
Grandson of Timur and his designated heir. Ruler in Fars.
Khalil Sultan February 1405 – 1409/1410
Grandson of Timur. Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia.
Shah Rukh February 1405 – 1446/1447
Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in Khorasan; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards.
Ulugh Beg 1446/1447 – October/November 1449
Son of Shah Rukh
Abdal-Latif Mirza October/November 1449 – May 1450
Son of Ulugh Beg
Abdullah Mirza May 1450 – 1451/1452
Grandson of Shah Rukh
Abu Sa'id Mirza 1451/1452–1458
Great-grandson of Timur

The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the Qara Qoyunlu in 1452–1458. For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see Timurid Empire § Emperors .
Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469)
The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s. Under the leader Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman in 1458.
The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as pādishāh-i Īrān and kesra-yi Īrān. Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.
This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Jahan Shah 1452–1467
Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458
Hasan Ali 1467–1469
Son of Jahan Shah
Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508)
Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group. In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.
Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as pādishāh-i Īrān and kesra-yi Īrān, among other titles. Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital. The capital was transferred to Tabriz under Uzun Hasan.
This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Uzun Hasan 1465/1469–1478
Conquered Iran in the 1460s
Sultan-Khalil 1478
Son of Uzun Hasan
Yaqub 1478–1490
Son of Uzun Hasan
Baysunghur 1490–1492
Son of Yaqub
Rustam Beg 1492–1496
Grandson of Uzun Hasan
Ahmad Beg 1496–1497
Grandson of Uzun Hasan
Alvand Beg 1497–1502
Grandson of Uzun Hasan
Muhammad Beg 1499–1500
Grandson of Uzun Hasan
Sultan Murad 1500–1508
Son of Yaqub
Zayn al-Abidin 1504–1508
Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan
Minor kingdoms and dynasties
Various local Iranian dynasties in Tabaristan:
* Qarinvand dynasty
* Dabuyid dynasty
* Bavand dynasty
* Baduspanid dynasty
* Afrasiyab dynasty
Ghurid dynasty, which controlled parts of eastern Iran
Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo:
* Sajid dynasty in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
* Rawadid dynasty in Azerbaijan
* Sallarid dynasty in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
* The Ilyasids in Kerman
* The Shaddadids in Armenia
* The Hasanwayhids in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
* The Marwanids in Mesopotamia
* The Annazids in western Iran/eastern Iraq
* The Kakuyids in central Iran
Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate:
* Kart dynasty in much of Khorasan
* The Muzaffarids in central and southern Iran
* The Injuids in southern Iran
* Jalayirid Sultanate in Iraq and western Iran
* The Sarbadars in parts of Khorasan
* The Chobanids in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
Modern Iran (1501–1979)
Safavid Iran (1501–1722)
Of native Iranian origins, the Safavid dynasty originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic Safavid order. In 1499, the Safavid sheikh Ismail defeated the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of Alvand Beg. In 1502, Ismail crowned himself šâhanšâh at Tabriz. The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian nation state. Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. Shia Islam was for the first time established as the state religion.
The Safavids ruled as šâhanšâh-e Irân. The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to Qazvin in 1548, and then to Isfahan in the 1590s.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Ismail I 11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524
Conquered and reunified Iran
Tahmasp I 22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576
Son of Ismail I
Ismail II 22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578
Son of Tahmasp I
Mohammad Khodabanda 11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587
Son of Tahmasp I
Abbas I
the Great 2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629
Son of Mohammad Khodabanda
Safi I 21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642
Grandson of Abbas I
Abbas II 12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667
Son of Safi I
Safi II
Suleiman I 3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694
Son of Abbas II
Soltan Hoseyn I 28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722
Son of Suleiman I
Intermediate period (1722–1796)
Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan. The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah and Karim Khan, respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors.
Hotaks (1722–1729)
In 1701, unrest among the Ghilji Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, George XI of Kartli, but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under Mirwais Hotak and his son, Mahmud Hotak. Mahmud initially feigned loyalty and was officially appointed as governor of Kandahar. In 1720, he began raiding the Kerman area and in March 1722, a larger hastily assembled and more powerful Safavid army was defeated at the Battle of Gulnabad. Following a six-month siege of Isfahan, Soltan Hoseyn I formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new shah of Iran. The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Mahmud Hotak 22 October 1722 – April/May 1725
Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I
Ashraf Hotak April/May 1725 – 1729
Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud
Safavid dynasts (1722–1773)
When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son Tahmasp II at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself shah. Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran. Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general Nader Khan. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old Abbas III. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new shah of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty. Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran.
Afsharids (1736–1796)
The Afsharid dynasty was established by Nader Shah, a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III. Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival Zand dynasty as well as the Afghan Durrani Empire. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of Khorasan. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions. The Afsharids ruled with the style of šâhanšâh and their capital was at Mashhad.
Zands (1751–1794)
In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the Zand dynasty grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s. Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be shahs.' Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet Ismail III and then on behalf of the Iranian people.' Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of khân, as well as the style of wakil or wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ.' His successors ruled simply as khân, though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers.' The Zand dynasty ruled from Shiraz.'
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Karim Khan 1751 – 1 March 1779'
Seized power over much of Iran
Mohammad-Ali Khan 2 March – 19 June 1779
Son of Karim Khan.' Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath Khan.
Abol-Fath Khan 2 March – 22 August 1779
Son of Karim Khan.' Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali Khan.
Sadeq Khan 22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781
Brother of Karim Khan'
Ali-Morad Khan 14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785
Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family'
Jafar Khan 17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789
Son of Sadeq Khan'
Sayed Morad Khan 23 January – 7 May 1789
Cousin of Ali-Morad Khan. Mutinied against Jafar Khan and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali Khan.'
Lotf Ali Khan 7 May 1789 – November 1794
Son of Jafar Khan
Qajar Iran (1789–1925)
The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids. The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands. Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was officially crowned in 1796. Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.
Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title khân and later šâh, never assuming the more grandiose šâhanšâh. Agha Mohammad's successor, Fath-Ali Shah, assumed both šâhanšâh and the Mongol khagan, titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers. Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers. The Qajar dynasty ruled from Tehran, inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Agha Mohammad Khan 1789 – 17 June 1797
Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796
[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah] 17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834
Nephew of Agha Mohammad Shah
Mohammad Shah 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848
Grandson of Fath-Ali Shah
Naser al-Din Shah 5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896
Son of Mohammad Shah
Mozaffar ad-Din Shah 1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907
Son of Naser al-Din Shah
Mohammad Ali Shah 3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909
Son of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah
Ahmad Shah 16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925
Son of Mohammad Ali Shah
Pahlavi Iran (1925–1979)
During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the Persian Constitutional Revolution. In 1923, the brigade commander Reza Khan quickly rose through the ranks to become prime minister. In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch. As his family name, Reza took Pahlavi, after the Pahlavi language of the pre-Islamic Sasanian Empire.
The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as šâhanšâh-e Irân.' Tehran remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule.
Portrait Name Reign Succession
Reza Shah 15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941
Former prime minister
Mohammad Reza Shah''' 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979
Son of Reza Shah