Panoan languages


Panoan is a family of languages spoken in western Brazil, eastern Peru, and northern Bolivia. It is possibly a branch of a larger Pano–Tacanan family.

Genetic relations

The Panoan family is generally believed to be related to the Tacanan family, forming with it Pano–Tacanan, though this has not yet been established.

Language contact

Jolkesky notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Mapudungun, Moseten-Tsimane, Tukano, Uru-Chipaya, Harakmbet, Arawak, Kandoshi, and Pukina language families due to contact.

Languages

There are some 18 extant and 14 extinct Panoan languages. In the list of Panoan languages below adapted from Fleck, means extinct, and obsolescent. Dialects are listed in parentheses.
Boundaries between the Poyanawa, Chama, and Headwaters groups are somewhat blurred. Karipuna and Môa River Nawa may not be distinct languages, and Chiriba may not be Panoan at all.
Hundreds of other Panoan "languages" have been reported in the literature. These are names of groups that may have been ethnically Panoan, but whose language is unattested. They sometimes are assumed to be Panoan on no other evidence than that the name ends in -nawa or -bo. A few, such as Maya, are unattested but reported to be mutually intelligible with a known Panoan language. The people speaking one of these supposed languages,, was rediscovered in 1987, reported bilingual in their language and Portuguese. However, no linguistic information is available, and it is not known if they speak a distinct language.

Amarante Ribeiro (2005)

Classification of the Panoan languages according to Amarante Ribeiro :

Oliveira (2014)

Internal classification by Oliveira :
  • Panoan
  • *Group 1: Kashíbo
  • *Group 2
  • **Shípibo-Kónibo, Kapanáwa
  • **Marúbo
  • *Group 3: Chákobo, Kaxararí
  • *Group 4: Yamináwa, Chanináwa, Sharanáwa
  • *Group 5: Shanenáwa, Katukína
  • *Group 6: Poyanáwa, Amawáka
  • *Group 7
  • **Kaxinawá, Marináwa
  • **Yawanawá
  • *Group 8: Mayorúna, Matís, Korúbo

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky :

Homonyms

Much of the confusion surrounding Panoan languages is the number of homonyms among different languages. The principal ambiguous names are as follows:
NameLocation or other nameLanguage
Kapanawaon the Tapichedialect of Shipibo-Konibo
Kapanawaon the Juruádialect of Ibuaçu Kashinawa
Kashinawaon the IbuaçuHeadwaters group
Kashinawaon the TarauacáMainline branch
Kulinaon the CuruçáMayoruna branch
Kulinaof São Paulo de OlivençáMainline branch
Maruboin the Javari BasinMainline branch
Maruboof Maucallacta Mayoruna branch
Remoon the BlancoNawa group
Remoon the MôaHeadwaters group
Remoon the JaquiranaPoyanawa group
RemoSouthern Remo Chama group
Sinaboof the MamoréBolivian group
Sinaboof the Ucayali BasinChama group
KatukinaWaninawaMarubo group
Katukinaof Feijo' dialect of Yaminawa
Nawaon the Môa Poyanawa group
NawaParkenawadialect of Yaminawa
Maroyunathree languages in list above
MaroyunaMatesMates
MaroyunaBarbudo Chama group
DemushboMatses group
DemushboChemadialect of Curuçá Kulina

Neighboring languages of other families may also share the names of Panoan language. The table below ignores other homonyms further afield:
FamilyLanguage
ArawakanKanamari, Kasharari, Kunibo, Mayoruna, Pakaguara
TakananChama, Arasa, Atsahuaca, Yamiaka
KatukinanKatukina, Kanamari
TupianKaripuna, Katukinarú
ArawanKulina, Arawá
HarakmbutArasairi

Loukotka (1968)

Below is a full list of Panoan language varieties listed by Loukotka, including names of unattested varieties.
; Northern languagesPano / Pánobo - spoken in the village of Contamana on the Ucayali River, Loreto province, Peru.Maruba / Maxuruna / Mayoruna / Pelado / Dallus - spoken on the Maruba River and Jandiatuba River, state of Amazonas.Culino - extinct language once spoken between the Jutaí River, Javarí River, and Jandiatuba River, Amazonas.Panau - spoken by only a few families in Seringal Barão, Rio Branco, territory of Acre, Brazil. Cashibo / Cacataibo / Caxivo / Hagueti - spoken on the Pachitea River, Pisqui River, and Aguaytía River, Loreto, Peru.Manamabobo - extinct language once spoken on the Pachitea River, Peru. Carapacho / Caliseca - once spoken on the Carapacho River, Peru. Pichobo - once spoken at the mouth of the Paguamigua River in Peru. Sobolbo / Bolbo - once spoken on the Cohengua River, Peru. Mochobo - once spoken between the Guanie River and Guarimi River. Maspo - once spoken on the Taco River and Manipaboro River. Comobo / Univitsa - once spoken in the same region on the Inua River and Unini River. Conibo / Cunibo / Curibeo - spoken along the Ucayali River between 8° 30' and 10° latitude.Cháma / Manava / Chipeo / Setebo / Shipibo / Puinahva - spoken on the Ucayali River north of the Conibo tribe.Nocamán - spoken at the sources of the Chesco River, Loreto.Ruanagua - spoken on the Corjuania River, Loreto. Capanagua - spoken on the Tapiche River and Blanco River, Loreto.Busquipani - once spoken on the Alacrán River, Loreto. Custanáwa - spoken on the upper course of the Purus River near the mouth of the Curanja River, Loreto. Espino - spoken on the Curumaha River in the same region. Yura - once spoken on the Piqueyaco River, Loreto. Marináwa - spoken on the Furnaya River, Loreto. Xaranáwa - spoken on the Curanja River, Loreto. Canawari - extinct language once spoken on the Curumaha River and Rixalá River, Acre territory, BrazilNucuini / Remo / Rheno - spoken at the sources of the Javari River and on the Moenalco River and Ipixuna River, state of Amazonas.Amahuaca / Sayaco / Impetineri - spoken on the Urubamba River and Ucayali River, Loreto, and on the Purus River and Juruá River, Acre.Mastináhua - spoken on the Purus River in the same territory. Cachináua / Huñikui - spoken between the Embira River, Liberdade River, and Tarauacá River, state of Amazonas.Tuxináua - spoken on the Embira River and Humaitá River, Acre.Camanáwa - on the Môa River in Acre. Pacanáwa - spoken at the sources of the Embira River, Acre. Nehanáwa - spoken by a small tribe on the Jordão River, Acre.Nastanáwa - spoken on the upper course of the Jordão River.Cuyanáwa - spoken between the Môa River and Paraná dos Mouros River, Acre territory. Sacuya - once spoken between the Juruá River and Tamaya River, Acre. Xanindáua - spoken by a small tribe on the Riozinho River, Acre. Coronáwa - spoken in the Acre territory, but exact location unknown. Yauavo - once spoken between the Tejo River and Aturia River, Acre.
; Yaminaua groupYaminaua - spoken at the sources of the Tarauaca River, territory of Acre.Poyanáwa - spoken in Acre territory on the Môa River.Yumanáwa - spoken on the Muruzinho River, Acre.Paran-náwa - spoken on the Muru River, Acre.Nixináwa - spoken on the Jordão River, Acre.Yawanáwa - spoken in Acre territory on the upper course of the Jordão River.Sanináwa / Shanináua - spoken on the Valparaiso River, Liberdade River, and Humaitá River, Acre.Xipináwa - spoken between the Valparaiso River and Liberdade River. Aranáwa - spoken between the Humaitá River and Liberdade River. Contanáwa - spoken in Acre on the upper course of the Tarauaca River and on the Humaitá River. Yumináhua - spoken on the Tarauaca River, Acre. Wamináua / Catoquino do Rio Gregorio - spoken in the same territory on the Gregorio River.
; Sensi groupSensi - spoken on the Huanachá River and Chanuya River, department of Loreto, Peru.
; Central groupYamiaca / Haauñeiri - spoken by a small tribe on the Yaguarmayo River, department of Madre de Dios, Peru.Arazaire - language spoken by a few families in the same region on the Marcapata River.Atsahuaca / Chaspa - spoken on the Carama River in Peru.Araua - extinct language once spoken on the Chiva River, territory of Colonia, Bolivia.
; Eastern groupChacobo - spoken around Lake Rogoaguado, Beni province, Bolivia.Capuibo - once spoken on the Biata River in Beni province, Bolivia. Pacaguara - language now probably extinct, once spoken between the Beni River and Abuña River.Sinabo / Shenabu / Gritones - language now probably extinct, once spoken on the Mamoré River near Los Almendrales, Beni Province. Caripuna / Jaunavô / Shakáre / Éloe / Yacariá - spoken in the nineteenth century along the Madeira River and the sources of the Beni River, now only in a single village at the mouth of the Mutumparaná River, Rondônia.Pama / Pamainá - language of an unknown tribe of the Caldeirão River, territory of Rondônia.

Grammatical features

Body-part prefixation

Exceptional to Panoan languages' predominantly suffixal morphology are sets of approximately 30 morphemes primarily referring to parts or features of prototypical human and animal bodies which have been found to occur in almost all attested languages of the family.
That these monosyllabic forms are productively affixed to the front of verbal, nominal, or adjectival roots has led many Panoanists to describe them as prefixes, while the forms' resemblance and loose semantic correspondence to unbound, polysyllabic 'body-part terms' has led others to describe them as incorporated nouns. More recent and detailed analyses of this feature in Matses and Kashibo-Kakataibo have demonstrated that most body-part prefixes in these languages are not readily analyzable as synchronic allomorphs of the nouns they resemble.
Many Panoan body-part prefixes semantically encompass a range of denotata beyond the strictly 'corporeal' by means of analogical extension. In Matses, for example, the prefix an- corresponds to the nouns ana 'mouth, tongue, palm, sole, pit'; anmaëşh 'gill slits '; and anşhantuk 'swampy depression in the ground'; but can itself be glossed also as 'cavity, concave surface, interior, underside'; and 'center '. In the examples below, the prefix an- with the verb root kiad 'learn' expresses the learning of a specifically 'oral activity' while the prefix më- 'hand, mortar, forearm, wrist, projecting carpal bones, elbow, finger, knuckles, fingernail, branch' expresses the learning of a specifically 'manual' one:
The following example illustrates how an- can express locative information in non-corporeal, topographical space:
While body-part prefixes in Kashibo-Kakataibo, as in Matses, are highly productive with verbs, they are used regularly with only a modest array of adjectives and nouns. Zariquiey and Fleck note that the Kashibo-Kakataibo "words for 'skin', 'hair', and 'flesh'" are regularly prefixed:
Due to the paucity of detailed studies of Panoan body-part prefixes, explanations of their grammaticalization remain largely speculative. Fleck has hypothesized that "Panoan prefixation evolved from past noun incorporation that co-existed with noun-noun and noun-adjective compounding that involved synchronic reduction of body-part roots". In light of their analysis of Kashibo-Kakataibo prefixation, Zariquiey and Fleck present two diachronic scenarios to orient future comparative work: " prefixation evolved from productive noun incorporation ; or Proto-Panoan body-part terms were monosyllabic forms that became bound, and most of the current body-part terms were later built up from these".

Vocabulary

Loukotka lists the following basic vocabulary items.
LanguageBranchheadtoothtonguefootonetwothreewatersunmaizetapirhouse
PánoboImápusétahánatal'ihawíchodawuómukenompáskowáritökiawuátaping
MarubaImápuchitáánatáipazüdabuimukenuókavárishukiawashubo
CulinoImazusitaanúwhütauitürabütakümayakuwarüchükighaisubichü
CashieoImapodzetahanatakachaprérabueitsaompasvaririkiauatóbu
ConiboImáposetahanataiachaprérabuehoneghuariserkeauháshrobo
ChámaImápurosetahanatalhávichoravuépikeumpasbaririkiahuatobo
NocamánImápurotétaánataiaindzinigerawuéompáswáritékiawuáshóu
CapanaguaIImápushrítahánatahöhawichurawíkyénebaritríkiawashúbu
CanawariIIwákawaríxemá
NucuiniIImapúshetaanátakiusicharinarabenaranabalibeniauáhubu
AmaguacaIImáputetahanátakuwuistérarábuewákomawádiktökiátsapás
CaxinauaIImápoxeltáhanataöbösterabönadaböupashbarishökiawatapás
TuxináuaIImapoːanantaiuáauáushá
NehanáwaIImapumátyahúnatahʔupashwárihʔw
YawanáwaYaminaua IImaposhetahánawákashʔneshʔkipuiwa
XanináwaYaminaua IImi-fushhashʔtahádatahʔhʔdfwauishʔhiawapʔsh
WanináwaYaminaua IImapushötahanatahöwakahwarishökeawishubu
SensiYaminaua IIomátsiküödsayátanawuístikoerawuénaravuekoeenipáxavaríxishínkiáwuapuöxe
YaminauaYaminaua Iwoshkashatahankataihuístirháhuimapohuakawanishikiáhuashúhuo
PoyanáwaYaminaua Ivoukáritáandátaeuesteːarabiːarananwákavorivouerouauáutá
YumanáwaYaminaua Ibuskashetaxándatáhahóndewárixátiámapítc
Paran-NawaYaminaua Ibuskashetahánataheusteraneumpashwárishekiáwashobo
NixináwaYaminaua Ivuskexétahándawákumaóarishekia
ChacoboEasternmápushítahánatáivuístitadávitatéreshenkämähuárishékiáhuarashóbo
PacaguaraEasternmapotsénaxánatahenatarabuexénebarishekiahuanashobo
CaripunaEasternmáposetáhanátaépazütaboemukenompasuabárishrökiauánashróba
YamiacaCentralrétahánatauöpusibotaénahuarihúkishanoyashopo
ArazaireCentralmashahuehanátaénunchinabutahumapashafuarihokishauvi
AtsahuacaCentralretahánatauönikatsudafuinashukaramaumapáshahuarihökiahuanashopo

Proto-language

Below are Proto-Panoan reconstructions by de Oliveira. For the full list of original Portuguese glosses, see the corresponding Portuguese article.
glossProto-Panoan
'sun'*βaɽi
'star'*wis
'corn'*ʂɨki
'to make, to kill'*ʔak-
'capybara'*ʔamɨ
'big, large'*ʔani
'paca '*ʔano
'intransitive concord suffix'*-ʔaʂ
'kind of poison'*ʔaʂ-
'tapir '*ʔawaɽ
'woman, wife'*ʔawi
'woman'*ʔaw̆iβo
'to swallow, to inhale'*ʔaya-
'I '*ʔɨ
'big, large'*ʔɨwa
'louse'*ʔia
'lake'*ʔian
'owner'*ʔiʔβo
'bird species'*ʔiʔtsak
'hot, heat'*ʔitsis
'heat, hot'*yoʔo
'hot'*ʂaa
'to embrace, to keep in one's arms'*ʔikok-
'to keep/carry in one's arms'*ʔikoʔiko-
'to rise, to go up'*ʔira-
'livestock, domestic animal'*ʔinak
'to give'*ʔinar-
'jaguar species'*ʔio
'fish species '*ʔipo
'pain, to hurt'*ʔisir-
'blackbird species '*ʔisko
'monkey species '*ʔiso
'monkey species'*ɽiɽo
'howler monkey '*ɽoʔo
'monkey species'*ʃiro
'monkey species '*sipi
'monkey species'*wasa
'to run'*ʔisto-
'very, much'*ʔitsak
'king vulture'*ʔiʃmi
'heavy'*ʔiwɨ
'stingray'*ʔiwi
'tick'*hoʔpoʂ
'rain'*ʔoi
'to look'*ʔoi-
'to cough'*ʔok-
'to know, to learn'*ʔoa-
'freshwater '*ʔoma-paʂa
'to laugh'*ʔosa-
'to sleep'*ʔoʂ-
'shadow'*ʔota
'to suck'*ʔoyo-
'he, that'*ha
'to run, to flee'*haβa-
'heron species'*haka
'to tread '*hamak-
'tongue'*hana
'to vomit'*haa-
'name'*harɨ
'curassow '*hãsi
'opening'*hãʂaβa
'this much'*hatit
'3PL'*hato
'what, which'*haw
'his, her'*hawɨn
'path, way, forest trail'*βaʔi
'night, dark'*βaʔkii
'dark, night'*yamɨ
'cloth '*βatʃi
'grazed, cleared'*βai
'son, child'*βakʷɨ
'foam'*βakoʂ
'to plant'*βana-
'egg'*βatsi
'to whisper'*βaʂɨʂɨ-
'sweet'*βata
'fish species'*βato
'parrot '*βawa
'fish species '*βawi
'to fetch, to search'*βɨ-
'comitative'*-βɨt, *-bɨta
'boy, adolescent'*βɨʔra
'to forget, to lose'*βɨʔoÇ
'tear'*βɨʔo
'waves'*βɨʔʃo
'forehead, face'*βɨmãnan
'husband, male'*βɨnɨ
'man, male'*βɨ̃βo
'tree species '*βɨp
'eye'*βɨɽo
'to cut'*βɨstɨ-
'eyebrows'*βɨʂko
'eyebrows'*βɨʂpi
'frog species'*βɨʂko
'thin, flat'*βɨʂa
'soup, broth'*βɨtɨm
'face '*βɨ-
'to catch'*βiÇ-
'skin, leather, hide'*βitsi
'heron species'*βitʃo
'mosquito species'*βi
'fruit'*βimi
'wasp'*βira
'moriche palm '*βinon
'guava'*βĩpiʃ
'pluralizer'*-βo
'woodpecker species '*βoir
'kind of box'*βoʔa-ti
'palm species'*βoʔɽɨ
'stump, trunk'*βoʔɽo
'fish species '*βoɨ
'resin'*βoi
'tree species '*βoko
'a small tree whose bark is used to make ropes'*βoko
'bee species'*βoa
'hair, coat'*βo
'kind of beetle'*βõpa
'otter species'*βõsi
'head'*βoʂka
'to sit '*tsaʔo-
'fish species'*tsatsa
'hiccup, to hiccup'*tsɨko-
'cicada'*tsiʔo
'charcoal, ember'*tsitsɨ
'ember, firewood charcoal'*iso
'who'*tso
'to catch, to grab with the hand'*tsoma-
'to sting, to pierce, to inject'*tʃaʔtʃi-
'to crush, to beat, to hit'*tʂaka-
'to lie'*tʃai-
'clam species'*tʃãpiʃ
'cricket, locust'*tʂãpo
'kingfisher'*tʃaɽaʂ
'deer species'*tʂaʂo
'fire'*tʃiʔi
'ashes '*tʃiʔi mapo
'to steer from behind'*tʃiβi-
'rear part'*tʃipo
'to wash, to wash oneself'*tʃoka-
'cloth, clothes'*tʃopa
'hard, strong'*tʃoɽiʃ
'hard, strong'*kɨɽɨʂ
'liquid, water'*hɨɨ
'fish species'*hɨɨ ʔino
'to leave, to let go of'*hɨɨÇ
'palm species'*hɨpɨ
'to shine, to burn'*hɨɽɨ-
'to put out '*oka-
'seed'*hɨʂɨ
'to enter'*hiʔki-
'ant species'*hiʔima
'ant species'*hii
'blood'*himi
'tail'*hina
'to see, to look'*his-
'kind of ant'*hitsis
'to urinate, urine'*hisor-
'kind of tree as well as its fruit'*hiʃtʃiβi
'tree, log '*hiwi-
'to hear, to listen, to understand'*kʷak-
'edge, lips'*kʷɨβi
'Penelope '*kʷɨβo
'to want, to desire'*kʷɨ̃ɨ̃-
'to want'*katsi, *-kas
'to love, to like, to want'*oi-
'to call'*kʷɨa-
'kind of bench'*kʷɨa
'to draw, to paint'*kʷɨɨ-
'beard'*kʷɨi
'end, extreme'*kʷɨo-
'to skewer'*kʷɨo-
'lips'*kʷɨʂa
'beard'*kʷɨʂi
'macaw species'*kaʔi
'back'*kaʔtɨ
'relative'*kai
'kind of basket'*kaka
'pineapple'*ka
'jaguar'*kamar
'snake species'*kaʔmoʂ
'macaw species'*kara
'flash of lightning'*karak
'bow'*kano-
'kind of squirrel'*kapa
'cayman'*kapɨt
'cará '*kaɽi
'firewood'*kaɽo
'mat'*kaʃi
'back '*ka-
'to sew'*kɨʔʂɨ-
'vessel, dish, plate'*kɨ̃tʃa
'piece, shard'*kɨʂɨ
'thick'*kɨʂto
'kind of pan'*kɨ̃ti
'to end, to finish'*kɨyo-
'locative ablative suffix, directional, towards'*-ki
'hole, opening'*kiri
'thigh'*kʷisi
'smoke'*kʷaʔin
'to boil'*koβi-
'jaw'*kʷi
'mother's brother'*koka
'glowworm'*koki
'mother's brother'*koko
'to swallow soft food'*koko-
'glowworm'*kokoi-
'tinamou '*koma
'fungus species'*koo
'pus'*ko
'value'*kopi
'ashes, greyish'*koɽo
'cedar'*oʂna
'causative verbal suffix'*-m-
'hill'*maʔtʃi
'fish species'*maʔi
'cold'*matsi
'to sweep'*matso-
'animal horn'*mãtʃa
'earth, land'*mai
'on earth, on the ground'*mai
'to bury'*mai-, *maiwa-
'headband, hat'*maiti
'rat'*maka
'rat'*ʂoya
'stone, rock'*maka
'piranha '*makɨ
'to wish'*mara-
'over, about'*maa
'metal'*maɨ
'banana'*mai
'to long'*o-
'to climb '*mapɨ-
'shrimp'*mapi
'head'*mapo
'clay, dust'*mapok
'plant species'*maɽaʂ
'agouti '*maɽi
'calabash species'*masɨ
'sand'*masi
'stone'*maʂaʂ
'urucum '*maʂɨ
'on top, peak'*maʂka
'to cut hair'*maʂkoɽ-
'animal horn'*mãʂo
'to hit the head'*matas
'to die'*mawa-
'ant species'*mawis
'to twist, to spin, to move in circles'*maya-
'to touch, to touch with the hand, to feel'*mɨʔ-
'to wet, wet'*mɨʔtʃa-
'hand, arm'*mɨβi
'fingernail'*mɨ̃tsis
'claw, nail'*hõtsis
'hand'*mɨkɨr
'right hand'*mɨkɨrɨ kʷaya
'to find, to look for'*mɨɽa-
'to crawl'*mɨʂo
'finger'*mɨtoti
'slough, muddy area'*mɨwɨ
'2SG'*mi
'2PL'*mato
'pamonha '*mɨsi
'hook, fishhook'*miʃkiti
'poison, bitter'*moka
'thorn'*moʂa
'nest'*naʔa
'sloth species'*naʔir
'sky'*naiɽ
'mosquito species'*akʷa
'termite'*nakʷaʂɨ
'to dream'*ama-
'below, under, underneath'*nama
'meat'*rami
'genipap '*aɨ
'to put inside, to submerge'*nan-
'inside, in the middle'*apo
'to bathe, to take a bath'*as-
'wide, broad'*aʂβa
'to bite'*atɨʂ-
'foreigner'*awa
'rainbow'*awa βaʔi
'cut vegetation, abandoned land'*awɨ
'trumpeter bird'*ɨa
'to unite, to put together'*ɨʔa-
'to tie'*ɨʂa-
'bird species'*ɨʂɨʂ
'day'*rɨtɨ
'to stand'*niÇ
'forest, woods'*iʔi
'breeze'*iβiÇ
'centipede, scorpion'*iβo
'to listen, to hear'*ĩka
'to drag, to pull'*i-
'to sweat'*iska-
'palm species'*isi
'to be bored'*iʃ-
'wind'*iwɨ
'1PL'*no
'deep'*oa-
'snail species'*oʔtʃo
'worm'*noʔir
'snail species'*oβo
'tasty, delicious'*o
'to swim'*on-
'to swim'*nono-
'duck'*rorom
'canoe'*õti
'to fly'*o-
'to come, to arrive'*ho-
'flower'*hoa
'language, voice, word'*hoi
'to breathe'*hoin
'heart'*hoiti
'to hide'*hon-
'man, human'*honi
'wild hog species'*hoo
'red'*hoʃin
'white'*hoʂo
'to wash'*paʔtsa-
'to get drunk, drunk'*paʔɨn-
'deaf'*paβɨ
'ear'*paβĩki
'bamboo species '*paka
'to fall'*pakɨt-
'armadillo species'*paɨo
'ear adornment, earring'*pao
'father'*papa
'to deceive'*paɽa-
'river'*paɽo
'ear '*pa-
'yellow'*pãʃin
'new, fresh, raw'*paʂa
'blossoming small branch on a stem'*paʂko
'deaf'*pãtot
'to shake'*paya-
'rotten'*payo
'wing, feather'*pɨʔi
'to eat'*pi-
'nephew, son of one's sister'*piʔak
'arrow'*pia
'parakeet'*pitso
'hummingbird'*pio
'toucan species'*pisa
'cujubi, wild turkey'*koʂo
'large toucan species'*ʂokɨ
'snake species'*pisika
'small bag '*piʃa
'mat'*piʃi
'small'*pistia
'food'*piti
'feces'*poʔi-
'kind of tubercle '*poa
'sister or brother of the opposite sex'*poi
'intestine, belly'*poko
'vein'*pono
'owl species'*popo
'sloth species'*posɨ
'ankle'*poʂko
'to throw, to abandon'*pota-
'dust'*poto
'arm'*poyam
'during, while'*ɽaʔma
'remedy, drug, traditional medicine'*ɽaʔo
'to be afraid, to get scared'*ɽaʔtɨ-
'two'*ɽaβɨt
'to be ashamed'*ɽaβi-
'knee, kneecap'*ɽãβoʂo
'to fear, to be afraid of'*ɽakʷɨ-
'to lie down'*ɽaka-
'to cover, to surround'*ɽako-
'body hair, coat'*ɽani
'knee'*ɽatoko-
'to kill'*ɽɨʔtɨ-
'end, headwater '*ɽɨβo
'forward, upwards '*ɽɨβo+ki
'hole in nose, nostril'*ɽɨ+kini
'to grind'*ɽɨnɨ-
'nasal septum'*ɽɨpaC
'to knock down, to fall over'*ɽɨɽ-
'musical instrument'*ɽɨwɨ
'equal, the same way, also'*-ɽiʔβi, *ɽiʔβa
'thread, string, cord'*ɽisiβitʃi
'thread'*ɽisis
'axe'*ɽoɨ
'tobacco'*ɽomɨ
'snake'*ɽoro
'to be on a diet, to fast'*sama-
'to lift, to suspend'*saá-
'fish species'*saí
'kind of small fish'*sani
'to put on clothes, to dress'*sawɨÇ-
'fierce'*sia
'coati species '*sisi
'good, pretty'*ʃaɽa
'chest '*ʃik
'plant species'*ʃiko
'spider species'*ʃia
'to think'*sina-
'pium '*ʃio
'clarity'*ʂaʔβak
'tamandua '*ʂaʔɨ
'to cut'*ʂaʔtɨ-
'to yawn'*ʂaβa-
'tree bark, skin'*ʂakaÇ
'sister-in-law, wife, cross-cousin '*ʂao
'bone'*ʂao
'cotton'*ʂapo
'pestle, stone'*ʂaʂo
'calabash species'*ʂata
'macaw species'*ʂawar
'tortoise'*ʂawɨ
'sugar cane '*ʂawi
'to drink'*ʂɨʔa-
'to thresh corn'*ʂɨʔmɨ-
'palm species'*ʂɨβo
'gecko species'*ʂɨkɨÇ
'caterpillar species'*ʂɨa
'tree species'*ʂɨa
'fat, grease, oil'*ʂɨi
'old'*ʂɨi
'tooth, beak '*ʂɨta
'vulture'*ʂɨtɨ
'to smell'*ʂɨtɨ-
'smell, scent'*wia
'stinky, stench'*pisi
'ceiling, roof, to thatch'*ʂɨwa-
'benefactive'*-ʂo
'transitive concord suffix'*-ʂon
'to roast'*ʂoʔi-
'needle'*ʂoʔomoʂ
'to scratch, to itch, itch'*ʂoa-
'fat'*ʂoaC-
'house'*ʂoβo
'to peel'*ʂoka-
'small'*ʂoko
'to cast skin '*ʂokoC-
'breasts, milk'*ʂoma
'green, unripe'*ʂoo
'papaya'*ʂopa
'down feather'*ʂopoÇ
'chest'*ʂotsi
'girl, young girl'*ʂõtako
'foot'*taʔɨ
'temporary house, shelter '*taʔpas
'liver'*takʷa
'peanut'*tama
'cheek'*tamβo
'to try, to taste '*tara-
'palm species'*taoaÇ
'bridge, platform'*tapo
'root'*tapon
'old log, rotten log'*taɽa
'to spin '*taɽá-
'clothes'*taɽi
'kind of basket'*tasa
'salt'*taʃi
'pile of logs floating down the river'*taʂa
'bamboo used for making arrows'*tawa
'to break'*tɨʔk-
'blowpipe'*tɨpi
'sprout, shoot'*tɨʂka
'neck, nape, throat'*tɨʂo
'Adam's apple'*tɨto
'hawk species'*tɨtɨC
'instrumental nominalizer'*-ti
'to hit, to beat'*tima-
'rifle, shotgun'*to...
'strainer'*toʔati
'to make pregnant, to give birth'*to-
'frog or toad species'*toa
'dark blue'*toa
'wart'*toʂpi
'to make'*-wa
'farm, garden'*wai
'water, river'*waka
'fish species'*wamɨ
'palm species'*wani
'pumpkin species'*waɽa
'to sweep, to forage'*was
'herb'*wasi
'spider's web'*waso
'cotton'*waʂmɨ
'imperative verbal suffix'*-wɨ
'narrow strait between two islands'*wɨa
'other, another'*wɨts
'one '*wɨsti
'lower leg'*wiʔtaʂɨ
'to row'*wia-
'to cry, to weep'*wi-
'club, baton'*wino
'to pass'*wio-
'calf'*wipoko
'black'*wiso
'with, in possession of'*-ya
'tick'*yaʔra
'town, settlement'*yakat-
'negative suffix'*ma
'axe'*yami
'fish'*yapa
'late; afternoon'*yãtan
'wild hog species'*yawa
'armadillo species'*yawis
'to say, to speak'*yoʔi-
'animal'*yoʔia
'to have fever, to get annoyed'*yoa-
'wizard'*yoβɨ
'pepper species'*yotʃi
'to ask'*yoka-
'fish species'*yoma
'thread, line, cord'*yoma
'to steal'*yomɨtso-
'people, human body'*yoɽa
'to grow'*yosi
'spirit'*yosi
'woman, old woman'*yoʂa