Palmyrene funerary reliefs
Palmyrene funerary reliefs are almost 4000 busts on decorative slabs closing burial niches inside underground tombs, produced in Palmyra over three centuries from the middle of the first century BC. It is the largest corpus of portrait sculpture in the Roman world outside Rome and the largest collection of funerary representations from one place in the classical world.
The reliefs were carved into square pieces of limestone and depicted figures in a direct frontal pose cut off at mid-torso. Arms and hands were portrayed in various gestures and poses. Most busts display a solitary figure, however some sculptures incorporate multiple figures of family members. The names and lineage of the deceased are engraved in Palmyrene Aramaic above the shoulders, and in some cases, with Koine Greek or Syriac.
Palmyrene funerary reliefs ceased to be produced after the city's sack by the Roman Empire in 273, which marked an end to its growth, development, wealth, and to its civilization altogether.
Aarhus University's Palmyra Portrait Project, led by Professor Rubina Raja, has digitised over 3,700 of the reliefs. The largest collection are in Syria and the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek has the third largest collection and other large collections are held by the Louvre, Yale University Art Gallery, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Ashmolean Museum, the National Museum of Denmark, the Fitzwilliam Museum and the British Museum.
Description
It is believed that Palmyrene funerary busts were created as symbolic decoration rather than portrayals of physical likeness. There is little individualization in the representation of figures, and like most ancient portraits the facial features are idealized. Male figures are depicted wearing a himation and chiton. The right arm is often wrapped in the himation with the hand placed on the chest. The left hand sometimes holds an attribute, often a scroll or leaf. Female busts are depicted wearing a tunic, cloak and veil. The right hand is often raised to the chin or cheek, sometimes holding the veil. Some female figures are depicted with the left hand holding an attribute conveying domesticity, such as a spindle or distaff. There are also instances where some female figures are portrayed holding a looped fold of the cloak.Female busts were sometimes shown with an outward palm. This is believed to be a gesture to ward off evil or related to involvement in religious rituals. Small-scale depictions of children are sometimes shown behind the parent.
Palmyrene funerary reliefs display a fusion of eastern and western influences. The busts mimic and display many features similar to Roman funerary reliefs. The static, frontal view of most busts is reminiscent of the frontality seen in ancient Egyptian Ka statues. This connection to Egypt is further found in the methods of mummification used in Palmyrene funerary rituals. The figures are depicted in Greek himations and chitons. Male figures are often depicted with their right arm wrapped in the himation and their hand placed on their chest. This gesture is derived from Greek models. Persian and eastern influences are found in the large scaled eyes with two concentric circles to mark the pupils. These influences are also found in the ornate jewelry.
Some variation in gestures and attributes allude to the individual's profession, wealth, or family roles. Male figures with a scroll or leaf are common and convey very little about individual identity. However, rare depictions portray a sword or whip indicating a caravan trader. Priests are identified by their modius, a cylinder shaped cap, and are usually portrayed holding objects such as a jug or vessel. Double portrait busts are sometimes depicted with one figure's arm around the shoulder of the other alluding to family ties and affection between figures. Several known double portrait busts depict a female figure with long hair, an exposed breast, and an arm over the shoulder of a male figure. These busts are believed to convey a wife mourning her deceased husband.
Another common theme was depicting favored objects and/or events that brought joy to the deceased during their lifetime. Such as a funerary relief depicting a merchant alongside his camel, which shows that he had a very close tie with the animal whom he probably frequently travelled with, that he chose to be depicted and remembered with this animal in death. Other examples of this are the funerary reliefs that depict certain family events favored by the deceased such as a meal or domestic settings portraying the family seated in their house reclining on a couch.