Old East Slavic literature


Old East Slavic literature, also known as Old Russian literature, is a collection of literary works of Rus' authors, which includes all the works of ancient Rus' theologians, historians, philosophers, translators, etc., and written in Old East Slavic. It is a general term that unites the common literary heritage of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine of the ancient period. In terms of genre construction, it has a number of differences from medieval European literature. The greatest influence on the literature of ancient Rus' was exerted by old Polish and old Serbian literature.
Most of the monuments of Old East Slavic literature have been preserved in the form of manuscripts. The most common type of manuscript was literary collections. Notebooks written by a single scribe could then be bound by the scribe or binder himself. Such collections can be of a certain or indefinite content, reflecting the individual tastes and interests of one or another scribe who selected materials for himself or for his customer.
Unlike other traditionalist literatures, the Old East Slavic literature is characterized by syncretism, lack of clearly expressed poetological reflection, conscious rejection of rationalism and specification of theoretical knowledge. It differs from Byzantine literature by its emphasized irregularity, the blurring of genres and boundaries between the prosaic and the poetic, and the lack of a clear conceptual apparatus.
Voluminous works could be copied and intertwined into separate books: some letopises, works on world history, paterics, works of a liturgical nature, prologues, etc. Small compositions, for example, "Praying of Daniel the Immured" or the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land did not make up separate books, but were distributed in collections.

Origins

Pre-Christian period

The early examples of pre-Christian Old East Slavic Rus' literature should primarily include the oral epic: legends, myths and fairy tales. Most of the Old East Slavic oral folklore was recorded only in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Among the oral works, stories about the meeting of a person with an otherworldly force were particularly distinguished. Such a story by genre was divided into a bailichka, where a meeting with evil spirits is told on behalf of an "eyewitness", and a byvalschina, an oral story about a case that allegedly took place in reality, without focusing on the personal testimony of the narrator. bylichka and byvalschina were often told in the villages to friends or children in order to wean them to walk far from home, and, according to Yevgeny Meletinsky, they became the prototype of "scary fairy tales".
Later, a special type of druzhina poetry began to take shape – bylina, Rus' epic poems about heroic or mythological events or remarkable episodes of national history. In some ways, bylina are similar to skaldic poetry: both are divided into songs of praise and blasphemy and glorify some historical event. Bylina, as a rule, are written in tonic verse with two or four accents.

Early period: translated Apocrypha

Almost all the literature of Rus' – original and translated – was handwritten. Handwritten works were distributed by copying by scribes or ordinary people.
In Rus', the apocrypha about the Last Judgment was especially popular. Among such works, a special place was occupied by the life of Basil the Younger, the second part of which spread as independent works.
Later, the original Old East Slavic apocrypha began to be created, the most famous of which is "The Walking of the Virgin through the Torments". Its plot is similar to the Greek "Revelation of the Most Holy Theotokos", but it also has many original features: for example, pagans who worship, Veles and Perun are in the first circle of hell, and there are a number of anti-Semitic statements in the text itself.
According to the philosopher Sergei Bulgakov, the special popularity of apocryphal literature in Rus' is indicated by the fact that of the seven most important monuments of the Jewish apocalyptic, three were preserved exclusively in Old Slavonic translations.

Early original compositions

Presumably, both epics and folk tales were not recorded by contemporaries for the reason that Rus' inherited from the Byzantine Empire a ban on literary fiction and the presence of a purely artistic function in the works. Back in 1073, the compilers of the Izbornik Svyatoslav warned against worldly writings based on artistic imagination. Fiction developed only in the late period.
However, despite some limitations, scientific and artistic works had to answer questions related to natural history and the development of human society.
The first original works in Kievan Rus' were instructive collections, which are the most common type of manuscripts. The scribe copied various works according to some attribute or genre in a notebook. Notebooks written by one scribe could then be bound by the scribe himself or the bookbinder into a separate book. The bookbinder could collect notebooks of different times and different scribes and connect them because they were of the same format or were combined by them according to content. Such collections are currently called convolutes. Such collections of teachings as Izmaragd, Golden Chain, Bee, Solemn, Zlatostruy, Pchela were originally intended for home and monastic cell reading. Included in these is the Palea, a collection of several interconnected ancient Rus' works that set out Old Testament history, with additions from apocryphal monuments, as well as with theological reasoning.
Already in the early period of the development of Rus' literature, one can trace the understanding of Rus' not only as an ethno-political and religious community, but also as the Kingdom of Christ. In the Sermon on Law and Grace of the middle of the 11th century, the newly baptized Rus' people are called new. The perception of the people who were baptized in the "last times" as new, endowed with special grace, was characteristic of Rus'. The widespread idea of an imminent dreadful judgment was strongly reflected in the Old East Slavic literature of that period; ascetic creations and instructive literature became an introduction to soteriology.

Genres

As most modern researchers note, there is no clear division of literature into genres in ancient Rus'. There were only a few authors who clearly defined the genre of their works. Thus, the lexeme Word often perceived as the name of a genre, could mean a didactic teaching, a chapter of a book, a conversation, a speech, articles of various content, etc.
Nevertheless, Nikita Tolstoy made an attempt to classify ancient Rus' literature; later, the classification was edited by Evgeny Vereshchagin :scriptural monuments: the Bible and biblical apocrypha, see Bible translations into Church Slavonic liturgical/euchographic: liturgical books and hymnographic monumentsdoctrinal: symbols, statements of faith, catechumens, polemical and ethical instructive teachings, interpretationspreaching: oratory prose and gnostic literaturehagiographic: lives of saints, laudatory words to saints, tales of acquisitions, transfer of relics and icons, miraclescanonical and legal: statutes, Kormchaia Books, law books, contractual, spiritual, deeds, etc. lettersmemorial: letopises, chronographs, descriptions of historical events, pilgrimages, travelsscientific: encyclopedic collectionshousehold: private correspondence, inscriptions, epigraphy.
This classification does not distinguish between primary genres and unifying genres that include small works as source material. This difference is taken into account in the classification based on the systematics of Dmitry Likhachev, who distinguished between monumental and small genre forms. Nikolai Prokofiev gave the following classification:complex forms: letopises, chronographs, hagiographic collections, letters, etc.primary genres:
  • * epic genres
  • ** historical genres: lives of the saints, military tale, legend and walking
  • ** allegorical: parables
  • ** symbolic: miracle, vision, sign, divinatory literature
  • * lyrical genres: teaching, message, crying.
The most important feature of epic genres is the object of the image and lyrical purpose.

Mathematics and cosmology

Mathematical-Easter essays

In the early period after the Christianization of Kievan Rus', there was no special church calendar, and the Old Slavic calendar was not suitable for calculating church holidays. Therefore, many authors had to make their own calculations in their works, which ranked their works among not only Paschal, but also mathematical treatises. For complex calculations, schoty was often used.
The earliest mathematical work of Kievan Rus' is considered to be "the doctrine of numbers" by Kirik the Novgorodian, a treatise on the calculus of time, combining an essay on mathematics, chronology and Paschalistics.
However, later mathematical treatises did not receive a proper development in Kievan Rus'. Among the works equal to the "doctrine of numbers", scientists include the "Charter of military Affairs" created in the 15th and 16th centuries, which set out the tasks of triangulation on the ground, and the "Book of soshny writing", dedicated to land surveying. Later works include an extensive manuscript entitled "Synodal No. 42", the first textbook in Rus' on theoretical geometry.

Cosmology works

The early cosmological works of Kievan Rus' were partially influenced by apocryphal writings, mixed with pre-Christian ideas about the structure of the world.
Thus, much attention is paid to the creation and structure of the world in two of the most significant early works: the Dove Book and "About the whole creation". Both works have a complex structure and are probably based on Old East Slavic apocryphal legends that existed for the early period after the Christianization of Kievan Rus'.
It is also interesting that in the "Depth Book", as in two other ancient Rus' monuments – "The Conversation of the Three Saints" and "The Conversation of Jerusalem" – for some reason, whales are endowed with supernatural power. In the "Conversation of the Three Saints", the Earth floats on top of the great sea on three large whales and 30 small whales; the latter cover 30 sea windows; "The Conversation of Jerusalem" and "Depth Book" connect the movement of the whale with the end of the world. According to the "Depth Book" — "The Whale-fish is the mother of all fish. On the Whale-fish the earth is founded; when the Whale-fish turns, then our white light is finished ".
The so-called "fortune-telling books" can probably also be attributed to cosmological works, which are currently not officially assigned to any of the genres of Kievan Rus'. Fortune-telling books were mainly distributed secretly: they were copied, sewn into other books, and passed on by inheritance. Officially, the distribution of such literature was persecuted by the church; lists of forbidden books of Kievan Rus' were compiled, in which divinatory literature was equated with apocrypha.

Theological literature

Very popular in ancient Rus' were the lives of saints, a kind of genre of hagiography that describes the life, deeds and miracles of ancient Rus' saints, martyrs and miracle workers.

Poetics

The scientist Alexander Panchenko refers to the earliest forms of Old East Slavic versification as the so-called "penitential poems", single poetic texts written by the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin, as well as separate chapters The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land containing a metric constant.
Despite this, versification in Kievan Rus' was most often not approved, because was considered inherent only in "Latins". This position was most consistently expressed by Archpriest Avvakum: “Do not look for rhetoric and philosophy, or eloquence, but live with a sound true verb. Therefore, а rhetorician and philosopher cannot be a Christian. Alexander Panchenko pointed out that the Old East Slavic church poetry was strongly influenced by West Slavic, especially Polish literature. Simeon Polotsky, releasing his "Rhymed Psalter", wrote that in Moscow they loved "the consonant singing of the Polish Psalter".

Syllabic verse

Some of the earliest representatives of Old East Slavic syllabic poetry are such poets as Karion Istomin, Simeon of Polotsk, Theophan Prokopovich, Antiochus Kantemir, Sylvester Medvedev and. The principle of syllabic symmetry was dominant. A twelve-syllable verse with a caesura after the fifth or sixth syllable was used; there are, for example, such complex schemes as: 5-6-8|8-6-5|7-7-4-5-3-5 or 8|5-5-5|8-8|5-5-5 There were also schemes where the number of syllables in each verse was a multiple of three.
The detailed life in the monastery can be judged by the syllabic poem by Karion Istomin "About speaking from people, how monks live in the monastery":

Acrostics

The acrostic form became very popular in Ancient Rus' poetics. It was also widely developed there. The earliest work in the genre of acrostic in ancient Russia is considered to be the, translated from Old Bulgarian. The acrostic in the Old East Slavic book poetry was also known in later times. Thus, the acrostic is found in one of the "greetings" of Karion Istomin to Tsarevich Alexey Petrovich:
Here the acrostic is "Alexy Tsarevich live forever".

Kievan Rus' law, documentation

In Kievan Rus', there were a number of canonical and legal statutes and rights. The special charters, judicial books, contractual, spiritual certificates and contribution certificates were common for the people and for the church. Most collections of Kievan Rus' law are strictly divided into civil and ecclesiastical. The exception is the Merilo Pravednoye, which is both a collection of church-canonical and civil legal legal nature.

Temporal law

The legal basis of the Kievan Rus' state was the Russkaya Pravda, Lithuanian statutes and Moscow Sidebniks. In 1649, the Sobornoye Ulozheniye was added to these written laws.
The so-called Russkaya Pravda is of great importance for the study of Kievan Rus' law. The Russkaya Pravda is a collection of legal norms of Rus', dated from various years, starting from 1016, the oldest Rus' legal code. The Russkaya Pravda contains the norms of criminal, compulsory, hereditary, family and procedural law. It is the main source for studying the legal, social and economic relations of Kievan Rus'. The Russkaya Pravda is similar to earlier European legal collections, such as Germanic law, for example, the Salic law, a collection of legislative acts of the Frankish state, the oldest text of which dates back to the beginning of the 6th century.
The short version consists of the following parts:The Oldest Pravda or the truth of Yaroslav, 1016, is usually associated with the activities of Yaroslav the Wise;The Pravda of the Yaroslavichs, does not have an exact date, often refers to 1072;Pokon virny – determination of the order of "feeding" of virniks, 1020s or 1030s;Urok to mostniks – regulation of the remuneration of bridge builders, or, according to some versions, bridge builders, 1020s or 1030s.
As many researchers have noted, the most ancient part of the Russkaya Pravda preserves the custom of blood feud, characteristic of the laws of pre-Christian Kievan Rus', although it limits it to the circle of closest relatives. The lengthy version includes about 121 articles and consists of two parts-the Charter of Yaroslav Vladimirovich and the Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. According to most researchers, the Lengthy Truth is based on the Short text, which was amended and supplemented, including those adopted during the Kiev reign of Vladimir II Monomakh.

Ecclesiastical law

With the Christianization of Kievan Rus', church law arose. The most important source of church law in Kievan Rus' was the sudebniki, the most famous of which is the Zakon Sudnyi Liudem. However, most often in the ecclesiastical sphere of Kievan Rus', they used kormchaia books, legal collections that contained both church rules and the decisions of the Roman and Byzantine emperors on the church.
From the translated Byzantine collections of ecclesiastical law in Kievan Rus', nomocanons, ', ', and Zanon books were used. However, despite the widespread existence in the written tradition, Byzantine law did not have a significant application in legal practice, and its full reception did not occur. Rus' ecclesiastical law was based primarily on the ecclesiastical statutes issued by the knyazes, based on local law and only limited borrowing of Byzantine law.
Later, in 1551, the comprehensive religious collection Stoglav was created, combining the norms of judicial, criminal and ecclesiastical law. Stoglav tried to solve the following pressing issues:
  • strengthening of church discipline among the clergy and the fight against the vicious behavior of representatives of the church, usury of monasteries,
  • unification of church rites and services,
  • powers of the ecclesiastical court,
  • combating the remnants of paganism among the population,
  • strict regulation of the order of correspondence of church books, the writing of icons, the construction of Russian Orthodox Church buildings, etc.
"Books of law" and "Merilo Pravednoye", one of the first Kievan Rus' collections of a civil and ecclesiastical-legal nature, contain both excerpts from Byzantine legislation and identical articles of Rus' origin, probably included in collections from an older one that did not come down to us of the collection of Kievan Rus' law.

Works cited

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