Candidate of Sciences


A Candidate of Sciences is a PhD-equivalent academic research degree established by the Soviet Union. Since the 1990s, it has been replaced by a Doctor of Philosophy degree in many post-soviet Central and Eastern European countries, but is still offered in others, particularly Russia. It is officially classified by UNESCO as ISCED level 8: doctoral or equivalent. In countries that confer a Candidate of Sciences degree, a more advanced degree, Doctor of Sciences, is usually conferred as a higher doctorate.
The Candidate of Sciences degree may be recognized as a Doctor of Philosophy, usually in natural sciences, by scientific institutions in other countries.

Overview

The degree was introduced in the USSR by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR on 13 January 1934, all previous degrees, ranks and titles having been abolished after the October Revolution in 1917, which viewed academic distinctions and ranks as remnants of capitalist inequality to be permanently eliminated. The introduction of the Candidate of Sciences degree also re-recognized some degrees earned prior to 1917 in Tsarist Russia and elsewhere.
To attain the Candidate of Sciences degree, an individual must hold a Master's or a Specialist diploma, both one or two year degrees in this system. Both of these prerequisites are post-Bachelor's degrees. The Candidate of Sciences degree requires a minimum of three years full-time study, during which the individual must conduct and publish their advanced original research into a topic that is deemed significant or has practical economic or military potential.
In order to attain the rank of full Professor in countries that award a Candidate of Science, a Doctor of Sciences degree is also required in the same way that habilitation is required in Germany. This is also sometimes the case in the United States and the United Kingdom, where in addition to the possession of a doctoral degree, some volume of further research must be demonstrated.

Procedure for attaining the degree

The work on a dissertation is commonly carried out during a postgraduate study period called aspirantura. Not all those who undertake aspirantura will be invited to write a dissertation. An analogous situation may be found in American institutions where, after comprehensive examinations, a student may obtain a terminal master's degree and not continue with a dissertation. Aspirantura is performed within either an educational institution or a scientific research institution. It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scholarly works alone. In experimental sciences, the dissertation is based on an independent research project conducted under the supervision of a professor, the results of which must be published in at least three papers in peer-review scientific journals.
Taking courses in philosophy and foreign language and passing a qualifying examination called a Candidate Minimum are prerequisites. In the Soviet Union, the Candidate Minimum included exams in the specialty field of the dissertant, a foreign language of his/her choice, and an exam in scientific communism. In post-Soviet Russia and other post-Soviet states, the exam in scientific communism was replaced by one in philosophy, and, most recently, Russia replaced it with an exam in the history and philosophy of science. In Ukraine, it was replaced with an exam in philosophy.
The dissertation is presented before a committee called the Dissertation Council, which is accredited at the educational or scientific institution. The Council consists of about 20 members who are the leading specialists in the field of the dissertation who have been selected and empowered to serve in this capacity. The summary of the dissertation must be published before the public defense in the form of autoreferat, about 150–200 copies distributed to major research organizations and libraries. The seeker of the degree must have an official research supervisor. The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the Defense of the Dissertation, the dissertation is summarized before the commission, followed by speeches from the opponents or the reading of their references. The aspirant then replies to the opponents' comments and answers the Council members' questions.
If the defense is successful, the dissertation and approval are submitted to the central statewide board called the Higher Attestation Commission, or to a similar authority in other applicable countries, which must confirm the degree. However, since the 2010s, the dissertation councils accredited at some world-renowned educational programs like those at Moscow and St. Petersburg State universities, as well as top-level research centers, are exempt from the requirement to send defended dissertations to the VAK for confirmation. As of 2021, there were 29 such exempt organizations.

Variations

Former Czechoslovakia

In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate of Sciences and Doctor of Sciences degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet system through Law 60/1953, passed in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the Communist Putsch in 1948, the supreme academic authority was the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities.
The abbreviation of the degree is CSc., added behind the bearer's name after a comma.
There have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.:
  • JUDr.
  • PhDr.
  • RNDr.
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed as "doctor." Applicants need a masters degree or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a rigorous thesis of 50,000 to 80,000 words and defending it at a viva voce exam in at least 2-3 related fields of doctoral studies.
  • MUDr. is a "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American MD, attained after 6-year university studies.
  • MVDr. is a "Doctor of Veterinary" akin to DVM.
  • RSDr. was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia during the Communist era, whether or not they had "graduated" from the Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The leading subject taught was Marxism-Leninism and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.

    Czechia

Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. An applicant is required to have masters degree in technical and economic university programs, or Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program, and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.

Slovakia

The Candidate of Science degree was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD.. Requirements are similar to the Czech system.

Poland

Since the medieval period, Polish tradition was to call any Ph.D. equivalent doktor, though for a short period of time between 1951 and 1958, the communist government tried to replace the title of doktor with kandydat nauk to follow the Soviet model.

Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus

In the USSR, at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted are required for completion. At least one paper is required to appear in one of the journals listed by the Higher Assessment Commission of the Russian Ministry of Science. In Belarus, all three publications must be published in the journals listed by the VAK.
In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding a Candidate degree.
According to the official Guidelines for the Recognition of Russian Qualifications in Other Countries, in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered to be equivalent to the first level of that nation's doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered an equivalent to this degree.

Kazakhstan

previously followed the Soviet two-tier academic degree system which included the Candidate of Sciences and Doctor of Sciences, awarded and recognized by the Higher Attestation Commission under the Ministry of Education and Science of Kazakhstan. Following the country's accession to the Bologna Process in 2010, Kazakhstan transitioned to the terminal degree system, formally abolishing the Candidate of Sciences degree in 2011 through Order No. 127 by the Minister of Education and Science: On Approval of the Rules for Awarding Degrees. The new system now recognizes Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Profile degrees, aligning with international standards.
Although the Candidate of Sciences degree is no longer awarded, individuals who hold this qualification may still receive recognition for their academic accomplishments in Kazakhstan, depending on the field and institution.

Ukraine

In 2014, with the adoption of the new Law of Ukraine On Higher Education, the degree of Candidate of Sciences was replaced with the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. According to the new law, the degree of Candidate of Sciences is equivalent to a PhD. This information is included in Candidate of Sciences diplomas issued after 2014.
In 2015, graduate students were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs for the last time. The form "Candidate of Science" is used on the English-language page of bilingual diplomas of Candidate of Sciences issued after 2014.
As of 2024, those who were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs until 2015 still may defend their theses and obtain the Candidate of Sciences degree.