Hausa animism

Terminology

Pre-Islamic Hausaland

Post-Islamic and contemporary practice

History

Beliefs

• The family rituals are done by the Mai-Gida, in connection to agricultural events and marriages. It consists of sacrifices made to the inherited iskoki spirits, with them drinking the blood, and the sacrifices eating the meat or giving it as alms. The family rituals are not done by urban Muslim Hausa.
• The public rituals have fallen out of favor.
• The individual aspects are mostly sacrifices done for personal ends. The socially acceptable of these are offerings done by groups to the relevant spirits to ensure their cooperation in their occupation, and offerings prescribed by a boka to remedy spirit caused ailments. Some may also do sacrifices to evil spirits to get help in committing nefarious deeds.
• The possession-trance group among the Maguzawa is simpler and less prominent. Its ceremonies are tied to specific events and crises. Each clan has one spirit that is "on the heads" of all members, but some individuals may be possessed by other spirits as well.

  Spirits

• Angulu.
• Auta, or Kulita, "the one who puts an end to birth". After a woman ceases to bear children, she calls her youngest Auta, as this bori has visited her.
• Buba is the son of Sarkin Filani, but he is treated more like a grandson, being joked with by Sarkin Filani instead of avoided, and this has made him immature. He is not demanding but cries at ceremonies if he can't find his parents or runs away.
• Bagwariya is thought to be an unusual choice in wife for a pious man such as Malam Alhaji. Some explain this by saying jinn are known to make strange decisions. Others say she was given to Sarkin Aljan by her father, and he gave her to Malam Alhaji, paying the bride price but not marrying her himself. She is a stereotype of the Gwari, being a pagan who does not conform to a halal diet. This, and not her ailments, makes her a black spirit. She eats constantly, particularly dogs and bushmeat, and prefers carrion. She does not like food with peppers. She suffers from a humpback and goitre, and causes these in people, though she is rarely the primary spirit to cause illness- typically she joins in after others. She is influential over her husband and Dan Galadima, and can persuade them to end the affliction of a patient. As a black spirit, only black animals are appropriate for her, usually a chicken or goat. Cooked beans may be substituted for the blood sacrifice. Her song comes after her husband's and has a disjointed sound to match her gait.
• Baidu is a spirit of the Fulani house, younger brother to Sarkin Filani and Zurkalene. He is not very active among the Yan Bori.
• Ba-Toye, who sets fire to houses and burns people.
• Barade, also called Sumba, Safiyanu, Sufi, and Sarkin Yaki is the adopted son of Biddarene. He is the biological son of Sarkin Aljan. He is enthusiastic in battle, but particular and sulky. He causes hemophilia and internal bleeding, which is accompanied by a feverish feeling and heartburn. He wears white, so a white cock or ram is the appropriate sacrifice. In addition to the white body cloth, his mounts wear a medicine belt, an empty sword sling, and carry a short spear or stick. He arrives after Sarkin Rafi at performances, and they dance together doing jifa.
• Barhaza is the younger sister of Sarkin Filani and belongs to the house of the hunters. She is sometimes married to the head, who has a household of 8. She is varyingly said to be married to Kure, Mai Gizo, and Mai Dawa. She causes paralysis and usually targets women. She may also cause sleepwalking and aimless wandering, aching stomachs and heads, and impotence. When these other afflictions occur in combination, and with paralysis or numbness on one side of the body, she is identified as responsible. Her sacrifice is a white sheep, and her medicine includes milk from a white cow and a white goat. She and her mounts wear white, cowrie head adornments, and silver bracelets. Her mounts at ceremonies mime milking and churning. She is shy, and her mounts must be attended to ensure they don't run away from ceremonies if startled.
• Dan Galadima, or Yerima, who is often known as the son of Alhaji and Bagwariya. When his parents aren't specifically mentioned, he is known as the son of a chief or king. He is generous to a fault, and sometimes a gambler. This generousity makes him a favorite at performances, and is seen as exemplary. He typically causes the maladies of fever and weightloss. Dan Galadima is sometimes recounted as the adopted son of Sarkin Aljan Sulemanu and Inna. Yan Bori as of the 1970s held he was the biological son of Biddarene. Any of the three brother spirits can be described as his father in accordance to Hausa custom. Dan Galadima has four wives and one concubine: ’Yar Mairo, Ciwo Babu Magani, Ci Goro, Azurfa, and Mai Fitila. All their children were adopted by Sarkin Rafi, his father's brother's son. In turn, he adopted his male parallel cousin's children. Each set of children by result lives with their biological grandparents. He makes his mounts compulsively give away their wealth and possessions, though it is believed they will return with interest. His generosity is considered a positive in Hausa culture, but excessive gambling is an embarrassment and a nuisance. A red cock with a saddle shaped marking on its back is the lesser sacrifice to him, and a ram with black rings around the eyes is the greater. His medicines include the parts from these animals and sweet or fragrant plants or perfumes. His mounts sit and throw cowries, as though gambling, dance in a whirling motion, or do jifa. He must be allowed three jifa jumps and then be gently restrained by stepping on his leg or clothing. He may attempt to give parts of his costume to others around him, which attendants try to prevent so they don't have to rush about retrieving the items. His mounts are covered with a saki when he is called, which is used as a cape when they are in trance. Once in trance he is given a turban, a small fan, kola nuts, a handkerchief with cowries for gambling, and bottles of perfume that are sprayed on his clothes.
• Danko Dan Musa, a snake spirit who causes stomach trouble. Danko belongs to the house of the lepers and is leader of the snake spirits. He is also called just Danko, just Dan Musa, Samami, or Majaciki. He lives in the water of rivers and wells, and caution must be taken in those places, both with snakes and with strange men. He is either young as he is not mentioned to have a wife or children, or middle aged due to his status. The latter interpretation holds to an oral tradition not found in his praise-epithets that his wife is Kwakiya, his biological son is Damatsiri, and adopted his adopted son is Masharuwa. He is said to be very wealthy, and may grant wealth to others, though this can have unforeseen negative consequences. He is powerful and dangerous. He is considered a white spirit, since he is not specifically a pagan. He causes stomach aches, infertility, and blindness. Only a black animal, typically a goat or cock, is fit to sacrifice for him because he wears black or indigo. His mounts at ceremonies imitate serpentine movements, crawling and rising like cobras. He consumes raw eggs and liver voraciously through them. He may ride mounts without invitation, and attempts are usually made to persuade him to leave and come back when preparations have actually been made for him. It does not take much effort for his mounts to enter trance.
• Duna, also called Baleri, is married to Ladi Mayya, who is also sometimes called Zakoma. They have three children, Kure, Ciwo Babu Magani and Manzo Maye, who has remained in his house. Duna is Shekaratafe's brother. He is a black spirit and a sorcerer. He is a skilled archer, and his arrows cause infertility in women. He appears late at night and in dreams, standing like a hyena with black monkey hair hanging over his face. He wears all black, which he uses as camouflage. He rarely fully possesses people, though he gives many nightmares and afflicts them with his arrows. His mounts at ceremonies mime the motions of archery.
• Hajjo is Ja'e's daughter and married to a Fulani man.
• Hawa’u, also known as Gurgunya is Sarkin Filani's sister and married to Kure.
• Inna, also called Hadiza Bafilatana, Doguwa Ta Kivance, Bakar Doguwa, or Doguwar Baka, is the mother of Danko and Sarkin Aljan Sulemanu's wife. She and her sister/co-wife are sisters of Sarkin Filani. She has an adulterous relationship with Kuturu. As such during bori ceremonies it is carefully planned that Inna and Kuturu do not appear together, which would anger Sarkin Aljan. The six sons which were adopted out were from her. As a spirit identified as Fulani, her behavior is a stereotype of how the Hausa perceive the Fulani. The Maguzawa call her the mother of all spirits, but in Kano, this honor goes to Magajiyar Jangare. The Manguzawa say she punishes those who steal from her worshippers with fatal abdominal swelling. Like all female Fulani spirits in the Bori, she is said to cause paralysis. A specific presentation of paralysis is attributed to her, which grows worse within days and may quickly result in death. Treatment by the Yan Bori is considered crucial and must be done quickly. A black chicken or goat is sacrificed to her. If this does not work, the patient is initiated and given a special potion to drink. Mount behaviors include miming milking motions, twirling a churning stick with drinking milk from a gourd and spitting, or staying close to the ground with one hand bent close to the body and shaking.
• Ja'e is the younger brother of Sarkin Filani and Sarkin Aljan Zurkalene, and serves as the latter's senior councillor in his house.
• Kuturu, the Leper. He is the senior councillor to Sarkin Aljan and the adulterous lover of Inna/Doguwa. He is also called Uban Dawaki, Goje, Kaura, Kyadi, or Sautau. He spends much of his time at the main gate of the palace. His wife is Almajira. Kure also has a relationship with Doguwa, and as such Kuturu dislikes showing up at ceremonies where he is present due to mutual jealousy. He is fearsome as senior councillor, but amusing as a nasal voiced and impatient Leper attempting to build a market stall. Though this may be amusing to some, he watches those who laugh. He takes what's given to him as alms, and is a generous gift giver. He warns his prospective mounts with fever and swelling before leprosy strikes them. His sacrifices are an ugly ruffled chicken or a particular type of red and white goat. The leaves and roots of the dundu, a favored resting place of his, are used in medicine for his ailments. At ceremonies his mounts act like lepers and compulsively beg for alms. Attendants are careful to remove rings from his mounts as their fingers may close up on their palms and freeze, and any rings may cause injuries. Their noses run and mouths contort, crawling with immobile, bent feet and ankles. His arms flail, looking like he is itching, but really as a display of power. He and his mounts dominate the ceremonies unless Sarkin Aljan is present. His mounts wear a red fez and leather apron, which they must be helped with, a woven grass bag and a warty gourd for food and alms. He has a fly switch and a string weapon made from dum palm nut.
• Kuri, or Kure, whose name is from "kura". Brother of Doguwar Baka. Sometimes is the son of Barhaza and adopted by Sarkin Filani. Also sometimes called Kura. Kure leads the butchers in Zurkalene's house. He prowls around the gates of Sarkin Aljan's house at night, and in the human world will in general be encountered at night and near the pakace gates of kings. He was born to Sarkin Fagan. He is married to Hawa’u, and Maimuna and Amina, who are the daughters of the previous chief of butchers. This previous chief recommended Kure for the position. He has three biological children. His daughter, Zainaba, still lives with him, but his sons, Bako Mashi and Masharuwa, were adopted by Danko. Kure is fearsome. He causes headaches, strangulation, and nose bleeds. A red cock or goat is an appropriate sacrifice, and his medicines include things for washing and drinking. His mounts rage in front of the musicians, prowling, snarling, and drooling and snapping at any who come near. A leash is tied to them by an attendant, who holds onto it to keep the audience calm.
• Kwakiya causes blindness like her husband, and is said to have taught him how to do so. She is an adopted daughter of Zurkalene.
• Magajiyar Jangare is the wife of Sarkin Aljan Biddarene. She is the spiritual mother of all the Yan Bori, and not easily angered. She is the most important spirit in Kano, but rarely mentioned anywhere else. This is because elsewhere, mounts fall into trance one at a time, with each spirit being called by their own song. In Kano, however, all mounts fall into trance at once to the same music- her music, which serves as a vehicle for the other spirits. She rarely has her own mounts. She causes headaches, pneumonia, impotence. Her sacrifice is a white hen or sheep.
• Labuda is Sarkin Filani's sister and married Zaki.
• Mai-Chibi, who gives babies umbilical hernias.
• Mai Dawa, also known as Mai Baka, Adamu, or Gajere, is the head of the house of archers. The house has an affinity with the Fulani spirits. His father is sometimes said to be Baleri, and his mother is sometimes said to be Inna, but his wife is sometimes said to be Barhaza, and the Yan Bori state thy don't believe even a spirit would marry his mother's sister. Some praise-epithets instead name his wives as Iyani and Awali. He is a fearless expert hunter, and tall when standing, but outside his home he always crouches. He causes unexplained bleeding, usually preceded by a cold and catarrh and then progressing to coughing up blood. His sacrifices are a short legged cock or black and brown male goat. Some of his arrows are "poisoned", meaning the affliction they cause won't be cured by sacrifice or initiation, but this is rare. At ceremonies his mounts mime archery, chopping undergrowth, and slaying animals, all while crouching. He dresses in black, with a tall hat that folds back to rest on the back of the neck and a leather apron. His black dress makes hik a black spirit. His mounts are usually given a broad ax and a bow and arrows.
• Mai Gizo is Sarkin Filani's son and was adopted by the house of the pagans because of his evil behavior and renouncing Islam. He is also called Yero. His hair is tangled, he does not shave, he refuses to bathe, he smells, his skin is rough, and his teeth are black or missing. He is a black spirit, both as a non-Muslim and a non-town spirit. He causes people to be unclean and renounce Islam, as well as headaches and insanity. He is difficult to appease. His sacrifices are a black male goat or cock. His mounts dress in skins at ceremonies and are given axes that they dance with.
• Mai-Inna.
• Mai Iyali is a spirit of a contentious identity. Some have accounted this spirit as female and married to Sarkin Aljan, and some have further identified this spirit with Magajiyar Jangare. In Kano they insist this spirit is male, also called Kunnau or Ali, and the brother of Sarkin Rafi. This spirit is also regarded as male in Katsina.
• Malam Alhaji, who is pious and well read. Some recount him as the father of Dan Galadima. He is the head of Zauren Malamai, and either has two wives or a wife and a concubine. His first wife, Kuri, had three sons, the oldest being Nakada, who is evil and now lives in the pagan house. His other wife or concubine, Arziki, also called Bagwariya, was originally of the pagan house and some believe she affected Nakada's temperament. He causes chronic coughing. His sacrifices are white unblemished animals, preferably a ram but sometimes a cock. Other spirits have special medicine belts, but his medical formulae are Quran verses. His mounts do not dance, but instead sit and write, read, pray, or pull their rosary beads. His mounts dress in white with a red fez and sit on a ramskin mat, all of which together are quite expensive.
• Na Matuwa is the son of Sarkin Filani. He seduces any woman he finds alone, and is difficult but redeemable enough that he hasn't been sent to live with the pagans.
• Nakada is the son of Malam Alhaji who renounced Islam. He is lacking in virtues, rude, an arsonist, and has a foul temper. He may cause madness in patients, but more common is eating excrement and hypersexuality. His mounts dance lewdly, dressed in clothes of fishing nets and monkey skins, with a tail tied on and a stick between their legs. He is the last spirit called as he closes the door that Sarkin Makada opens.
• Nana'aishe causes stomach ailments and itching.
• Sa'idi.
• Sambo is the son of Sarkin Filani. He appears often in small urban areas and causes people to wander around the bush.
• Sarkin Aljan, the chief of spirits who rules Jangare. He may also be called Sarkin Aljan Sulemanu. A story of Sarkin Aljan tells of him riding in a nighttime procession before the morning of Id al-Kabir headed for a tree, where the spirits were said to live, criminals were executed, and madmen cured. A royal servant was awakened by this, and assuming it was his human Sarkin riding, joined the parade. He realized his mistake, but touched the Sarkin Aljan. This drove him mad, and he died not long after. Sarkin Aljan is thought to be the adopted son of Taiki and Mabuga, two inactive spirits. He is the older brother of Biddarene and Malam Alhaji, each of which are house heads. His wives are Fulani sisters. All six of his sons have been adopted by Biddarene, who gave Sulemanu his own six sons in return. He in turn adopted his grandchildren, who were born in Biddarene's house. Grandchildren and grandparents are considered "joking relatives" by the Hausa, while parents and children are meant to avoid each other. Two stories are told of how Sulemanu became the ruler of Jangare. Muslims say he was appointed by Allah, and the Prophet Sulemanu tied the turban around the spirit Sulemanu's head. Those who are less Islamized say he simply stepped up to the position and appointed the other house heads. He is described as causing headaches. A bull of any color is the best sacrifice, but a white ram is also acceptable. The medicines for treating his mounts are rare or expensive- parts from animals that are difficult to hunt, items filling circumstances which rarely occur. His mounts are bossy, act distant, and haughty, though they are expected to restrain this behavior outside of trance. While possessed they have a chiefly posture and may rock while seated. Attendants usually fan ostrich plume fans around them. The costume items must be of the best quality, consisting of a gown, trousers, shirt, shoes, staff, prayer beads, and fans.
• Sarkin Aljan Zurkalene, head of zaren Sarkin Aljan Zurkalene, is the younger brother of the head of the Fulani spirits. He has a household of 6. He has a horn in the middle of his head, and at present never possesses people. He left Sarkin Filani's house because he was displeased with prospects there, and brought his younger brother Ja'e' with him to serve as his councillor. He married the sister of Shekaratafe, Kasa, adopted two of his children and two of his brothers children.
• Sarkin Arna is the head of the house of the pagans. He has at least three wives. He is an alcoholic, and causes this ailment in patients, as well as causing them to renounce Islam. His mounts dance like drunkards with disconnected movements and collapse to the ground.
• Sarkin Filani, also called Mai Ruga Dukko, or Hardo, has 4 wives and 10 children. He watches over herds. He causes his prospective mounts to become nomadic, to the point where they refuse to sit. They often find a stick like herders use and carry it around. They will only eat cassava and cakes made of ground nuts. He also causes scrotal hernias. He prefers white animals, and only the best cock or ram is appropriate. He rarely afflicts people, and usually the sacrifice is medicine enough.
• Sarkin Makada is also called Dafau, Madi, Abdullahi, and various other names. He is the son of Abamu and grandson of Karbo. His wife is Zabiya, and they have 5 children, one of whom is Dan Galadima's principal wife. He leads the musicians in Zurkalene's house. He spends a lot of time at Sarkin Aljan's house as a courtier. During Yan Bori ceremonies, he comes first and opens the door for the other spirits. Like any proper maroka, he clears the way for and announces the presence of his leaders. He is thought to bear too many responsibilities. He is expert musician, and no one, spirit or human, can match him. His ailments are related to music, such as sore shoulders and throat problems. While other spirits have an inferior and superior sacrifice, both of his are equal in his eyes. He may attempt to strangle his own mounts while in trance, but this is unusual and extreme, and considered a mistreatment of the mount. He mimes playing music and will often sing for the other spirits present. He also prefers female mounts.
• Sarkin Rafi, also called Ibrahim, Shari, Zugu, or Totsi. He is the chief of well watered land, whose personality is mad, angry, and violent. He is the husband of Nana and brother of Ali, who may also known as Mai Iyali. He is the brother of Barade. He is the adopted son of Biddarene, and biological son of Sarkin Aljan. He has an adulterous relationship with Badakuwa, his younger brother's wife. He and Dan Galadima are parallel cousins and have adopted each other's children. He is summoned at the annual harvest and dances with leaps, landing on his bottom. This style of jump is called jifa. He causes madness and unsocial behavio. His sacrifices are a speckled cock, a black and white ram, or a duck in any color. Patients spend months or years being treated with various medicines. Mounts at ceremonies mime mounting horses as the horse violently coughs, retches, and vomits or froths at mouth and nose. He makes them scoop up dirt to pour over their heads and rub into their eyes. He screams and mimes swimming, and jumps into nearby water or mud. People at ceremonies are careful not to block his path, as he may become violent. During the harvest festival, a large pumpkin is brought out, and he breaks it by landing on it with a jifa leap. The pieces are distributed among the Yan Bori. As the brother of Barade, they travel together, help each other cause ailments, and mounts often serve them both.
• Shekaratafe, also called Sarkin Fagan, in not a very active spirit. He lives in the water, is married to Harakwai, and has at least 8 children. His mounts, when possessed, sit under a canopy and do not dance.
• Tsatsuba is the daughter of Barhaza and was adopted by Sarkin Filani.
• The Tundara, a bori in the shape of a spotted snake who may drink milk from a mother to prevent her from feeding a baby.
• Wanzami is the son of Barhaza and holds office as a Muslim Judge that gives him a relationship to Dan Galadima. Wanzami was appointed Alkalin Jangare by Sulemanu, and his first act was to turban Sulemanu as the Ultimate Chief of the Spirits. Some say he serves Sulemanu and is a close friend of Dan Galadima; others say he serves Dan Galadima. He was born in the house of the hunters as the first born son of Mai Dawa and Barhaza. He was adopted by his uncle, Sarkin Filani, and left his house to serve Sarkin Aljan. He is also a barber, circumsizer, and scarifier, and at times this is emphasized over his position as a judge. He causes baldness, shaving rashes, and difficulty healing after surgery. He wears red, and as such his sacrifice is a male red goat or a red cock. The infusion to treat his illnesses has ten items, including blood from the heart of a cow and items representing his kin. His mounts do jifa and mimicry of shaving, with periods of inactivity where he is said to be acting like a judge. He often shows up at events where Dan Galadima is present, as they are close. His mounts wear a red wrapper, many medicine belts around their lower chest, a red sword sling, and a wallet with two compartments to hold shaving and scarifying tools.
• Zainaba is married to Mai Gizo and is the step daughter of Sarkin Filani.