Greenlanders
Greenlanders, also called Greenlandics or Greenlandic people, are the people of Greenland. Most speak Greenlandic, an Eskaleut language. Greenlandic Inuit make up 85–90% of the people of Greenland.
Greenland is an autonomous territory within the Danish Realm, and its citizens hold Danish nationality. In 986, Erik the Red led Norse settlers to Greenland's southwest coast, where they coexisted with indigenous cultures. Greenland came under Norwegian rule in 1261 and later became part of the Kalmar Union in 1397. From the 16th to 18th centuries, European expeditions led by Portugal, Denmark–Norway, and missionaries like Hans Egede, sought Greenland for trade, sovereignty, and the rediscovery of lost Norse settlements, ultimately leading to Danish colonization.
Identity
Greenlanders possess Danish nationality. The Danish Realm, including Greenland, joined the European Communities, the predecessor to the European Union, in 1973. However, after gaining home rule in 1979, Greenland held a referendum in 1982 in which the majority voted to leave the Communities. As a result, Greenland officially withdrew from the European Communities in 1985. Although Greenland is no longer part of the European Union, it maintains a special relationship through its status as an Overseas Country and Territory. As Danish citizens, Greenlanders have the same rights to freedom of movement within the EU; this allows them to live and work freely in member states.History
Early Paleo-Inuit cultures
In prehistoric times, Greenland was inhabited by several Paleo-Inuit cultures, identified primarily through archaeological discoveries. The first known entry of the Paleo-Inuit into Greenland occurred around 2500 BC. From 2500 BC to 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture thrived in southern and western Greenland, with most remains found near Disko Bay.Simultaneously, the Independence I culture existed in northern Greenland from 2400 BC to 1300 BC as part of the Arctic small tool tradition, with settlements such as Deltaterrasserne emerging. Around 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture disappeared, and the Early Dorset culture emerged in western Greenland and the Independence II culture in the north. The Dorset culture, the first to spread across Greenland's coastal regions in both the east and west, lasted until the Thule culture's dominance by AD 1500. Dorset communities primarily relied on hunting whales and reindeer for sustenance.
Norse settlements
In 986, Icelanders and Norwegians, led by Erik the Red with 14 boats, established settlements along Greenland's west coast. These settlements, the Eastern, Western, and Middle Settlements, were located on fjords near the island's southwestern tip. At the time, the Norse settlers shared Greenland with the late Dorset culture in the northern and western regions and later with the Thule culture, which migrated from the north. In 1261, Norse Greenlanders came under Norwegian rule as part of the Kingdom of Norway. Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1380, and Greenland subsequently became part of the Kalmar Union in 1397.The Norse settlements, including Brattahlíð, thrived for several centuries before disappearing in the 15th century, possibly due to the onset of the Little Ice Age. Aside from a few runic inscriptions, the only surviving contemporary records of the Norse settlements are accounts of their contact with Iceland and Norway. Medieval Norwegian sagas and historical texts document aspects of Greenland's economy, the bishops of Garðar, and the collection of tithes. Additionally, the Konungs skuggsjá contains a chapter describing Norse Greenland's exports, imports, and attempts at grain cultivation.
Icelandic sagas about life in Greenland were written in the 13th century or later and are not considered primary sources for early Norse Greenland; however, they are closer to primary sources for later Norse Greenland. Modern understanding of Norse Greenland relies primarily on archaeological evidence. Ice-core and clam-shell data suggest that between AD 800 and 1300, southern Greenland's fjord regions experienced a relatively mild climate, several degrees warmer than usual for the North Atlantic. This allowed for the growth of trees and herbaceous plants, livestock farming, and barley cultivation near the 70th parallel. Ice cores also reveal that Greenland has undergone significant temperature fluctuations over the past 100,000 years. The Icelandic Book of Settlements also records harsh winters, with famines reportedly leading to the killing of "the old and helpless" which "were killed and thrown over cliffs".
The Norse settlements in Greenland disappeared during the 14th and early 15th centuries. The decline of the Western Settlement coincided with a significant drop in both summer and winter temperatures. Research on North Atlantic temperature variability during the Little Ice Age indicates that maximum summer temperatures began to decrease around the early 14th century, dropping by as much as below modern summer averages. Additionally, the coldest winter temperatures in 2,000 years occurred during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Eastern Settlement is believed to have been abandoned in the early to mid-15th century, likely as a result of these harsh climatic conditions.
Archaeological excavations at Herjolfsnes in the 1920s revealed evidence suggesting that the Norse population in Greenland may have experienced malnutrition. This could have been caused by soil erosion, linked to the Norsemen's farming practices, turf-cutting, and deforestation, as well as a decline in temperatures during the Little Ice Age, the impact of pandemic plagues, or conflicts with the Skrælings. However, more recent archaeological studies question the extent of the Norse colonization's environmental damage, suggesting traces of soil improvement strategies. It is now believed that the settlements, never exceeding about 2,500 people, were gradually abandoned in the 15th century, partly due to the declining value of walrus ivory, once a key export, amid competition from higher-quality sources. Evidence of widespread starvation or severe hardship remains limited.
Thule culture (1300–present)
The Thule people are the ancestors of the modern Greenlandic population, with no genetic links to the Paleo-Inuit found in the current population. The Thule culture migrated eastward from present-day Alaska around 1000 AD, reaching Greenland by approximately 1300. They introduced significant technological advancements to the region, including dog sleds and toggling harpoons.There is an Inuit account of contact and conflict with the Norse settlers, republished in The Norse Atlantic Sagas by Gwyn Jones. Jones notes a possible Norse account of the same event, though its authenticity is considered more uncertain.
1500–1814
In 1500, King Manuel I of Portugal dispatched Gaspar Corte-Real to Greenland to search for a Northwest Passage to Asia, as the Treaty of Tordesillas placed Greenland within Portugal's sphere of influence. In 1501, Gaspar returned with his brother Miguel Corte-Real, but frozen seas forced them southward to Labrador and Newfoundland. Their cartographic findings contributed to the Cantino planisphere, created in Lisbon in 1502, which accurately depicted Greenland's southern coastline.From 1605 to 1607, King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway organized expeditions to reestablish contact with Greenland's lost Norse settlements and affirm sovereignty over the island. Despite the efforts, including the participation of English explorer James Hall as pilot, these missions were largely unsuccessful due to harsh Arctic conditions and the near-inaccessibility of Greenland's east coast, where they mistakenly searched.
After the disappearance of the Norse settlements, Inuit groups controlled Greenland. However, Denmark-Norway maintained its claims, rooted in Norse history. In 1721, missionary Hans Egede led a joint mercantile and religious expedition to Greenland, seeking to reestablish contact with any remaining Norse descendants. Though no Norse communities remained, this mission marked the beginning of Denmark's colonization of the Americas. The colony, centered at Godthåb, restricted trade to Danish merchants and excluded foreign influence. Egede eventually returned to Denmark, leaving his son Paul Egede to continue the mission.
Treaty of Kiel to World War II (1814–1945)
When the union between the crowns of Denmark and Norway dissolved in 1814, the Treaty of Kiel assigned Norway's former colonies, including Greenland, to the Danish monarch. In July 1931, Norway occupied the then-uninhabited eastern Greenland, naming it Erik the Red's Land, on the basis that it was terra nullius. The dispute between Norway and Denmark was brought before the Permanent Court of International Justice in 1933, which ruled in favor of Denmark.Greenland's connection to Denmark was disrupted on 9 April 1940, during World War II, when Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany. On 8 April 1941, the United States occupied Greenland to protect it from potential German invasion. The U.S. occupation lasted until the end of the war in 1945. During this time, Greenland traded cryolite from the Ivittuut mine to acquire goods from the U.S. and Canada. The U.S. military used Bluie as a codename for Greenland, establishing several bases, including Bluie West-1 at Narsarsuaq and Bluie West-8 at Kangerlussuaq, which remain major international airports today.
During the war, Greenland's governance changed. Governor Eske Brun assumed control under a 1925 Danish law allowing governors to act independently in extreme circumstances. Meanwhile, Governor Aksel Svane relocated to the U.S. to oversee Greenland's supply commission. The Danish Sirius Patrol guarded northeastern Greenland, using dog sleds to detect German weather stations, which were subsequently destroyed by American forces. After Nazi Germany's collapse, Albert Speer briefly considered escaping to Greenland but ultimately surrendered to the United States Armed Forces.
Before 1940, Greenland was a protected and isolated society under Denmark's trade monopoly, allowing limited barter trade with British whalers. Wartime experiences fostered a sense of self-reliance, as Greenland managed its own governance and external communication. In 1946, the highest Greenlandic council, the Landsrådene, recommended gradual reform rather than radical changes. A commission initiated in 1948 presented its findings in 1950, advocating for the development of a modern welfare state, modeled on Denmark's example with Danish support. In 1953, Greenland became an integral part of the Danish Kingdom, and in 1979, it was granted home rule.