Forests in Turkey
cover almost a third of Turkey. They are almost all state-owned, and vary from temperate rainforest in the north-east to maquis in the south and west. Pine, fir, oak and beech are common.
After the glaciers retreated over ten thousand years ago, woods grew to cover most of the land which is now Turkey; however over thousands of years, many of the trees have been cut down. The country is slowly reforesting, which is beneficial for its wildlife and to absorb carbon to help limit climate change.
As of the mid-2020s, the main product of Turkey's forests is wood, and they are also important for recreation. Almost half the forest is badly degraded, and the woodlands are threatened by drought, wildfire, mining, and pests and diseases.
Definition and cover
In 2023, forests covered about 30% of the country, almost the global average. Legally in Turkey, a piece of woodland of less than three hectares cannot be labelled "forest". However, the national greenhouse gas inventory uses the Food and Agriculture Organization definition: forests must cover 1 ha or more and be at least 5m high. There are forestsubcategories of coniferous, deciduous, mixed, and 'other forested land' which has a crown closure between 1 and 10 percent. Forests with a crown closure of over 10% are classed as productive. Trees grown for crops in plantations are not classified as forests. A 2024 study states that deforestation caused by other uses of forest land, such as mining, is not reflected in official statistics, and that these uses cause forest degradation by fragmentation., over 40% of the forests in Turkey were heavily degraded, that is with less than 10% canopy cover. In 2024 preparations for a new inventory continued, and the Turkish National Forestry Program is being prepared. Since a change to the Forestry Law in 2018, the president has been able to reclassify land as not being forest.History
As Turkeyʼs glaciers almost all melted over ten thousand years ago, more oak grew in Central Anatolia. Ten thousand years ago, Anatolia was mostly forested, but forest cover before the formation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 is not well documented. That period and prehistory can, however, be studied from tree rings, palynology and charcoal.Deforestation had increased sharply by 4000 BC, when wood was used for fuel and construction, for example in the settlement of Çatalhöyük. In the Bronze Age, at around 3500 BC, humans began to significantly impact forests, for example by transporting wood from remote areas. In the last two thousand years, especially in the last five hundred, much old growth forest has been cut down. Wooden ships were built, sometimes armies at war burnt forests to expose their enemies, and forests were cleared for agriculture. As well as oak, there were juniper and Black pine in these forests. Turkish sweetgum was formerly widespread, but is now restricted to Southwest Anatolia. Sources such as Theophrastus show that Ancient Mediterranean civilisations used wood as a fuel in houses, bakeries, bathhouses, and for metalwork. Cedar was used for temples, such as at Ephesus and Artemis. Chestnut and fir were used for charcoal. The Ottoman navy built ships from timber from the coasts of the Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas. Typically, armies used more wood than navies.
As part of late Ottoman Empire reforms, a Forest Charter was issued in 1840 and the Forestry Directorate established, but according to one study it was too top-down and lacked public engagement. After the formation of the republic in the 1920s, forestry and wood production were increased. Forests were nationalised in 1938, and the first large afforestation project in Turkey was done in 1939.
Climate and forests
Although forests cover 23 million of Turkey's 78 million ha, 3 million ha have less than 10% crown cover, and almost 10 million ha were degraded forest as of 2020. Almost all forests are state owned and managed by the of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; the GDF plan to increase the amount of forests so as to remove more carbon from the atmosphere, and thus reabsorb more of Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions. The GDF has 28 Regional Directorates of Forestry and 12 Forestry Research Institutes. The Turkish constitution prohibits existing forests being transferred from state ownership, but state land is sometimes leased for private reforestation. Reforestation by the private sector varies around five thousand ha a year. A 2020 study suggested that incentives for private afforestation should be increased. There is a strategic plan for adaptation to climate change, and Turkey is taking part in the Bonn Challenge. The Turkish Industry and Business Association recommends that afforestation should be better planned, carbon offsets and credits should be available, and carbon storage should be included in the Forest Law.Snow, and to a lesser extent rain, has decreased in Turkey. TÜSİAD predicts a 90% reduction in habitats suitable for Black pine. TÜSİAD reports that the massive forest fires that burned in 2021 and the shrinkage and drying of wetlands in Central Anatolia are the most obvious examples of aridification. The severity of drought and the area affected will increase with the effects of climate change; it is predicted that this will harm forests. In a climate that becomes more arid, efforts to increase carbon sink areas, such as afforestation and carbon sequestration, will become less efficient. Drought is a threat both directly and indirectly by encouraging bark beetles.
Distribution of forests
Forests are mainly on the mountain ranges parallel to the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. 4% of forests are coppice while the rest are high forests, and there are six million ha of maquis, mostly in the south and west. High rainfall in the eastern Black Sea Region sustains temperate rainforest. 15% of forest area is in protected areas and the rest in managed forest.Eight ecoregions are officially defined, all of which contain woodland: Euxine-Colchic deciduous forest; North Anatolian deciduous, coniferous and mixed; Mediterranean coastal zone deciduous and coniferous; Mediterranean Mountain zone; Aegean Inland deciduous and coniferous; Central Anatolian steppe; East Anatolian deciduous; and East Anatolian steppe. Others include Balkan mixed forests and Caucasus mixed forests, and the World Wide Fund for Nature lists 13 ecozones with woodland. Almost all the forests are in a temperate climate.
A quarter of the Black Sea Region is forested, while other regions with over 10% forest include Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean and East Anatolia. Wildfires are increasing in some regions due to climate change in Turkey. Because of droughts in 2008, 2020, and 2021, more forests burned in those years.
Large areas of forest can be inventoried by satellite to hectare scale, and small areas by lidar. The national database, known as EVANIS, uses the national legal definition of forest and is very accurate for stands, but not as good at estimating how much carbon dioxide is absorbed by land use, land-use change, and forestry.
The 2023 GDF activity report says "In addition, with the aim of planning and implementing forest areas in an organized and sustainable manner under the name of "Nation Forest" with a new recreation approach, Amasya National Forest, Izmir National Forest, Kastamonu National Forest, Kayseri National Forest, Mersin National Forest, Kocaeli National Forest, Batman National Forest. Forest, Manisa National Forest and Siirt National Forest facilities were realized."
City forests and urban trees
In the early 21st century the government put more emphasis on urban trees and has said that each major city should have a "city forest", however these are not always controlled by city councils.Ecology
Over half the volume of forest in Turkey is from the three species of Turkish pine, Black pine and Scots pine. Brown bears sometimes leave the forest and enter urban areas - there is a fine for shooting them.Most forests are natural and semi-natural, with some being on mountains and having a lot of biodiversity, hosting most species of the flora and fauna of Turkey, including flagship species such as Anatolian leopards. Deciduous forests can be found along the Black Sea. Species in various ecoregions in Turkey, namely Irano-Turanion, Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian, belong to about 800 woody taxa. As of 2020 the predominant species are oak, Turkish pine, black pine, Oriental beech, European red pine, Juniper, Fir, Caucasian Spruce, Cedar of Lebanon : other species include Stone pine, Mediterranean cypress, Aleppo pine, Alder, sweet chestnut, and hornbeam.
Old-growth forest
There are old-growth forests containing over 500 taxa of trees and shrubs in the country. Old-growth-forests are defined as "A primary or natural/near natural forest area containing tree species, whose existence can be traced back from hundreds of years to neolithic ages." Degraded ancient woodlands are sometimes very scattered. According to a 2018 study by Turkish and British academics, both local support and national policy are needed to protect and rehabilitate them. Heritage trees include the İnkaya Plane Tree, and some are called natural monuments.Benefits of forests
Forests are the country's main carbon sink, especially in western Turkey where most are living biomass rather than soil organic carbon. Forests are estimated to have absorbed 34 million tonnes of the 600 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey in 2021, less than in previous years due to both forest fires and a lot of wood being harvested. The World Bank says that, "Increasing forest cover and improving forest health can help prevent soil erosion and landslides and reduce the impacts of floods." In the mid-2020s the World Bank is supporting a project to make the forests more resilient against climate change in Turkey. Eight million ha of forests are certified by the Forest Stewardship Council.Some forests, such as Belgrad Forest in Istanbul, are important for recreation and tourism. Some national parks and nature parks of Turkey contain forest, and there is an ecotourism plan to 2025. There are forest schools and preschooling.
As of the early 2020s, there is no regulation encouraging more use of wood in buildings instead of concrete and steel, which are carbon-intensive. There is no standard life-cycle assessment of the sustainability of buildings. There are no plans to reduce firewood burning, although it emits soot and causes indoor air pollution, which is bad for health.