Fish
A fish is an aquatic, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fins and a hard skull, but lacking limbs with digits. Fish can be grouped into the more basal jawless fish and the more common jawed fish, the latter including all living cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as the extinct placoderms and acanthodians. In a break from the long tradition of grouping all fish into a single class, modern phylogenetics views fish as a paraphyletic group that includes all vertebrates except tetrapods. In English, the plural of "fish" is fish when referring to individuals and fishes when referring to species.
Most fish are cold-blooded, their body temperature varying with the surrounding water, though some large, active swimmers like the white shark and tuna can maintain a higher core temperature. Many fish can communicate acoustically with each other, such as during courtship displays. The study of fish is known as ichthyology.
There are over 33,000 extant species of fish, easily the largest group of vertebrates and more than all species of the other traditional classes, namely amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, combined. Most fish belong to the class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes, which accounts for approximately half of all living vertebrates.
The earliest fish appeared during the Cambrian as small filter feeders; they continued to evolve through the Paleozoic, diversifying into many forms. The earliest fish with dedicated respiratory gills and paired fins, the ostracoderms, had heavy bony plates that served as protective exoskeletons against invertebrate predators. The first fish with jaws, the placoderms, appeared in the Silurian and greatly diversified during the Devonian, the "Age of Fishes".
Bony fish, distinguished by the presence of swim bladders and later ossified endoskeletons, emerged as the dominant group of fish after the end-Devonian extinction wiped out the apex predators, the placoderms. Bony fish are further divided into lobe-finned and ray-finned fishes. About 96% of all living fish species today are teleosts- a crown group of ray-finned fish that can protrude their jaws. The tetrapods, a mostly terrestrial clade of vertebrates that have dominated the top trophic levels in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems since the Late Paleozoic, evolved from lobe-finned fish during the Carboniferous, developing air-breathing lungs homologous to swim bladders.
Fish have been an important natural resource for humans since prehistoric times, especially as food. Commercial and subsistence fishers harvest fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or breeding cages in the ocean. Fish are caught for recreation or raised by fishkeepers as ornaments for private and public exhibition in aquaria and garden ponds. Fish have had a role in human culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, and as the subjects of art, books and movies.
Etymology
The word fish is inherited from Proto-Germanic, and is related to German Fisch, the Latin piscis, and Old Irish íasc, though the exact root is unknown; some authorities reconstruct a Proto-Indo-European root *peysk-, attested only in Italic, Celtic, and Germanic.Though often used interchangeably, in biology fish and fishes have different meanings. Fish is used as a singular noun, or as a plural to describe multiple individuals from a single species. Fishes is used to describe different species or species groups.
Evolution
Fossil history
About 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion, fishlike animals with a notochord and eyes at the front of the body, such as Haikouichthys, appear in the fossil record. During the late Cambrian, other jawless forms such as conodonts appear.Jawed vertebrates appear in the Silurian, with giant armoured placoderms such as Dunkleosteus. Jawed fish, too, appeared during the Silurian: the cartilaginous Chondrichthyes and the bony Osteichthyes.
During the Devonian, fish diversity greatly increased, including among the placoderms, lobe-finned fishes, and early sharks, earning the Devonian the epithet "the age of fishes".
Phylogeny
Fishes are a paraphyletic group, since any clade containing all jawed fish or all bony fish also contains the clade of tetrapods, which are usually not considered fish. Some tetrapods, such as cetaceans and ichthyosaurs, have secondarily acquired a fish-like body shape through convergent evolution. On the other hand, Fishes of the World comments that "it is increasingly widely accepted that tetrapods, including ourselves, are simply modified bony fishes, and so we are comfortable with using the taxon Osteichthyes as a clade, which now includes all tetrapods".The biodiversity of extant fish is unevenly distributed among the various groups; teleosts, bony fishes able to protrude their jaws, make up 96% of fish species. The cladogram shows the evolutionary relationships of all groups of living fishes and the tetrapods. Extinct groups are marked with a dagger ; groups of uncertain placement are labelled with a question mark and dashed lines. Groups with over 25,000 species are in boldface.
Taxonomy
Fishes are a paraphyletic group and for this reason, the class Pisces seen in older reference works is no longer used in formal classifications. Traditional classification divides fish into three extant classes, and with extinct forms sometimes classified within those groups, sometimes as their own classes.Fish account for more than half of vertebrate species. As of 2016, there are over 32,000 described species of bony fish, over 1,100 species of cartilaginous fish, and over 100 hagfish and lampreys. A third of these fall within the nine largest families; from largest to smallest, these are Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, and Scorpaenidae. About 64 families are monotypic, containing only one species.
Diversity
Fish range in size from the huge whale shark to some tiny teleosts only long, such as the cyprinid Paedocypris progenetica and the stout infantfish.Swimming performance varies from fish such as tuna, salmon, and jacks that can cover 10–20 body-lengths per second to species such as eels and rays that swim no more than 0.5 body-lengths per second.
A typical fish is cold-blooded, has a streamlined body for rapid swimming, extracts oxygen from water using gills, has two sets of paired fins, one or two dorsal fins, an anal fin and a tail fin, jaws, skin covered with scales, and lays eggs. Each criterion has exceptions, creating a wide diversity in body shape and way of life. For example, some fast-swimming fish are warm-blooded, while some slow-swimming fish have abandoned streamlining in favour of other body shapes.
Ecology
Habitats
Fish species are roughly divided equally between freshwater and marine ecosystems; there are some 15,200 freshwater species and around 14,800 marine species. Coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific constitute the center of diversity for marine fishes, whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests, especially the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong basins. More than 5,600 fish species inhabit Neotropical freshwaters alone, such that Neotropical fishes represent about 10% of all vertebrate species on the Earth.Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans, although none have been found in the deepest 25% of the ocean. The deepest living fish in the ocean so far found is a cusk-eel, Abyssobrotula galatheae, recorded at the bottom of the Puerto Rico Trench at.
In terms of temperature, Jonah's icefish live in cold waters of the Southern Ocean, including under the Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf at a latitude of 79°S, while desert pupfish live in desert springs, streams, and marshes, sometimes highly saline, with water temperatures as high as 36 C.
A few fish live mostly on land or lay their eggs on land near water. Mudskippers feed and interact with one another on mudflats and go underwater to hide in their burrows. A single undescribed species of Phreatobius has been called a true "land fish" as this worm-like catfish strictly lives among waterlogged leaf litter. Cavefish of multiple families live in underground lakes, underground rivers or aquifers.
Parasites and predators
Like other animals, fish suffer from parasitism. Some species use cleaner fish to remove external parasites. The best known of these are the bluestreak cleaner wrasses of coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. These small fish maintain cleaning stations where other fish congregate and perform specific movements to attract the attention of the cleaners. Cleaning behaviors have been observed in a number of fish groups, including an interesting case between two cichlids of the same genus, Etroplus maculatus, the cleaner, and the much larger E. suratensis.Fish occupy many trophic levels in freshwater and marine food webs. Fish at the higher levels are predatory, and a substantial part of their prey consists of other fish. In addition, mammals such as dolphins and seals feed on fish, alongside birds such as gannets and cormorants.
Anatomy and physiology
Locomotion
The body of a typical fish is adapted for efficient swimming by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. These contractions form S-shaped curves that move down the body. As each curve reaches the tail fin, force is applied to the water, moving the fish forward. The other fins act as control surfaces like an aircraft's flaps, enabling the fish to steer in any direction.Since body tissue is denser than water, fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many bony fish have an internal organ called a swim bladder that allows them to adjust their buoyancy by increasing or decreasing the amount of gas it contains.
The scales of fish provide protection from predators at the cost of adding stiffness and weight. Fish scales are often highly reflective; this silvering provides camouflage in the open ocean. Because the water all around is the same colour, reflecting an image of the water offers near-invisibility.