History of Verona
The history of Verona traces its origins from the foundation of the first settlement on San Pietro hill, probably dating back to the Neolithic period, to the present day: the evidence of such an ancient and rich history can be seen in the landmarks, in the streets and squares, even underground, where the ruins and artifacts of ancient prehistoric and particularly Roman civilizations emerge. It was especially during Roman rule that Verona prospered to become one of the most important cities in northern Italy, a status it maintained even after the fall of the Roman Empire, when the city was repeatedly elevated to capital of Roman-Barbarian kingdoms.
In the Late Middle Ages it became a Free Commune, often ravaged by bloody struggles between the Guelph and Ghibelline families: the former headed by the Sambonifacio, the latter by the Montecchi at first, and then by the Scaligeri; the latter were the main protagonists of Veronese history for two centuries, and it was under their leadership that a smooth transition from Commune to Lordship took place. In 1388 the Scaliger city lost its independence to end up being subjugated first by the Visconti, and then by the Carraresi; however, as early as 1405 the devotion of Verona to Venice took place, which administered the city until its fall in 1797, a moment from which French and Austrian rule followed. Verona became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Italy only in 1866, following the Third Italian War of Independence.
Foundation
Verona was founded in a place, the San Pietro hill, whose choice was propitiated by favorable natural conditions: the hill was easily defensible from external attacks, while the banks of the Adige could be dangerous, as the river exposed the surrounding areas to annual flooding; in addition, the relief was located at the end of the Adige valley, the main route of communication with the peoples of northern Europe.Prehistory
As early as the Neolithic, there was the probable presence of a village at the southern area of Colle San Pietro, along the course of the Adige, since it was one of the few fordable points of the river, and in addition, from that point one could quickly reach the safe surrounding hills. Towards the end of the Neolithic, i.e., at the end of the 4th millennium BC, a number of nomadic groups migrated from southern France and settled at the site of today's Castel San Pietro, where the first village safely sheltered from the annual flooding of the Adige River developed. From the first centuries of the 4th millennium B.C.E., the culture of square-mouthed vases also spread, with a geometric and linear style that would later evolve into a meander-spiral style.The area of the hill of San Pietro is rich in archaeological sites, where even the remains of the houses that formed the ancient village have been found, some of them interpreted as structures and basement houses typical of Lessinia. The village grew over time and saw different populations settle there, such as the terramare inhabitants in the Bronze Age, while during the Iron Age protohistoric civilizations proliferated.
Protohistory
was spared from the occupation of the Gallic peoples who in various waves from the west occupied the Po Valley, but relations between the ancient Veneti and the Gauls were nevertheless close. In Verona in particular, the situation was different from that of the rest of Veneto, as the Cenomani Gauls reached as far as the course of the Adige River: in the Verona area, Rhaetic artifacts or at least those related to Celtic culture have been found, and it is very likely that the village was inhabited jointly by the Cenomani and the Veneti.Latin historians have variously credited Euganei, Rhaetians, Veneti, Etruscans or Cenomani Gauls with the origins of Verona: the historian Polybius states that in his time the Venetian ethnic group was still numerous among the city's population, and indeed the Venetian presence is well documented, particularly at the hill of San Pietro, and the Venetian foundation hypothesis is based on this statement of his; the hypothesis of foundation by the Rhaetians and jointly by the Euganei, on the other hand, was formulated by Pliny the Elder ; that of the Cenomani Gauls was instead supported by Livy.
Roman Verona
Early relations with the Roman Republic
Before Latinization, the area of Verona was populated by Veneti and Cenomani Gauls: stronger in Verona was the Paleovenetian presence, evidenced by numerous finds belonging to that people. Cispadania was inhabited in the 3rd century B.C. by numerous warlike peoples, so the Romans turned to the Veneti for help, as they believed them to be blood relatives: this belief was the result of a legend that Antenor and the Eneti, among the few survivors of the Trojan War, were driven from their land and came after a long journey to the upper Adriatic Sea, to the region roughly corresponding to today's Veneto, where they hunted the Euganei. Cato the Censor stated that “Venetos Troiana stirpe ortos.”The first contacts between Rome and Verona are documented around the 3rd century BC, and from the very beginning they were characterized by friendly and allied relations: as early as 283 BC the Roman Senate made a pact with the Veneti and the Cenomani Gauls to slow down the Gallic invasion, but there were probably earlier contacts, beginning in 390 BC, when the Gauls of Brennus invaded Rome but, through a diversion of the Veneti, were forced to come to terms with the Romans.
In 225 B.C. the Romans sent ambassadors to the Veneti and Cenomani to forge an alliance against the Boii and Insubri, who were threatening the Roman frontiers. Given the friendly relations, they allowed the Romans to erect a small garrison on top of St. Peter's Hill, from which they controlled the area. Even during the Second Punic War, the two local populations helped the Romans, while all the other Gallic populations had sided with Carthage. At the end of the war, in order to complete the subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul Rome began a full-fledged war of conquest, again supported by these two peoples.
In 174 BC, following the subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul and the beginning of a new period of colonization of the Po Valley, the great strategic importance of Verona began to be apparent. The Roman Senate thus required Cenomani and Veneti to expand the fortified castrum, while Roman settlers and indigenous peoples laid the foundations for the building of a new city within the bend of the Adige River. By the time of the Third Punic War, vital communication routes such as the Via Postumia, which started from Genoa and reached Aquileia across the Po Valley, passed through Verona. It is assumed that at this time in history the Veneti were linked to the Romans by amicitia, unlike the Transpadan Gauls who were linked to Rome by foedus: this link was used mainly in Hellenistic states and provided for neutrality, which could become an alliance only in exceptional cases. Verona remained an ally of Rome even in the late 2nd and early 1st centuries B.C. against the invading Teutons and Cimbri.
''Res publica Veronensium''
Latin law was extended to Cisalpine Gaul through the Lex Pompeia de Transpadanis, proposed by Consul Pompey Strabo; pre-existing centers, including Verona, became therefore fictitious Latin colonies. The development of the city through a planned layout in the bend of the Adige River is from this period.Thanks to Julius Caesar, in 49 B.C., Verona became a Roman city and, thanks to the Lex Roscia, it was granted the status of municipium and a countryside of up to 3,700 km². The municipium could then boast the name Res publica Veronensium.
During the republican period Verona was rarely directly involved in the bloody period of the civil wars ; this helped its development and its economy, which went on to strengthen mainly in the cultivation of vines and olives, horse breeding and sheep breeding, as well as wool production. Handicrafts and trade also had a strong development. During this period the city, now moved to the bend of the Adige River, began to enlarge and modernize. Two new bridges were also built in place of the ford: the Pietra bridge and the Postumio bridge, over which the road of the same name passed.
The imperial era
Under the Augustan Empire, the city became an even more important strategic hub, as it was used as a temporary base for the legions, particularly after the conquest of Raetia and Vindelicia. It was precisely the increased importance of the Adige Valley as a link with northern Europe, and by virtue of Verona's strategic importance, that allowed the construction of the Via Claudia Augusta, which led from Ostiglia to the Brenner Pass and thus into present-day Austria. Augustus provided for the territorial rearrangement of the peninsula by subdividing it into eleven regiones; Verona was then incorporated into the Regio X Venetia et Histria, which included the populations of the Cenomani Gauls, Rhaetians, Euganei, Veneti, Carni and Histri.During this period Verona experienced a considerable influx of wealth, which led to further development of the city: baths and a Roman theater were erected at the foot of St. Peter's Hill. During the rule of Emperor Claudius, the Via Claudia Augusta and the Via Gallica were also built, and other roads were redeveloped.
With the coming to power of the Flavian dynasty, the long period of peace was interrupted for the city, particularly because of the war between Vitellius and Vespasian: the latter chose the city as a fortress, because it was surrounded by open fields in which he could deploy his cavalry; moreover, being a rich and important colony, its conquest was used for propaganda purposes. However, since the city was now growing outside the Republican city wall, a rampart was built south to the city, resulting in the excavation of the Adigetto, a long moat used for defensive purposes even in the Middle Ages. Verona was also a strategic location for Vespasian since he could have blocked Vitellius' descent into Italy from there. Fortunately for the city, a mutiny by one of Vitellius' legions pushed the war far away. It was under Emperor Vespasian, however, that the city reached the height of its wealth and splendor: the last great work of the first century was the Arena, built because the city, now with more than 25,000 inhabitants, needed a great building to cheer and distract its people.