Christianity in China

has been present in China since the early medieval period, and became a significant presence in the country during the early modern era. The Church of the East appeared in China in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty. Catholicism was one of the religions patronized by the emperors of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, but it did not take root in China until its reintroduction by the Jesuits during the 16th century. Beginning in the early 19th century, Protestant missions in China attracted small but influential followings, and independent Chinese churches were also established.
Accurate data on Chinese Christians is difficult to access. There were some 4 million before 1949. The number of Chinese Christians had increased significantly since the easing of restrictions on religious activities during the reform and opening up of the late 1970s. In 2018, the Chinese government declared that there are over 44 million Christians in China. On the other hand, some international Christian organizations estimate that there are tens of millions more, who choose not to publicly identify as such. These estimations are controversial because the organizations which make them are often accused of deliberately inflating them.
For most of Chinese imperial history, religious practice was tightly controlled by the state. The People's Republic of China also heavily regulates religion, and has increasingly implemented a policy of sinicization of Christianity since 2018. Chinese people over the age of 18 are only allowed to join Christian groups that are registered with one of three state-controlled bodies, either the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, the China Christian Council, or the Protestant Three-Self Patriotic Movement. However, many Chinese Christians are members of informal networks and underground churches, often known as house churches. These began to proliferate during the 1950s when many Christians rejected the state-controlled bodies. Members of house churches represent diverse theological traditions, and have been described as representing a "silent majority" of Chinese Christians.

Terminology

There are various names used for the Abrahamic God in the Chinese language, the most prevalent of them is "Shangdi", commonly used by both Protestants and non-Christians, and "", commonly used by Catholics. The word "Shen", which is also used by Chinese Protestants, may also refer to deities or the generative powers of nature in the context of Chinese traditional religion. In addition, Christians have historically adopted terms from the Chinese classics as references to God, such as 'Ruler' and 'Creator'.
Chinese terms for Christian denominations include "Protestantism", "Catholicism", and "Eastern Orthodoxy". Orthodox Christianity as a whole is referred to as. Christians in China are referred to as or.

History

Pre-modern history

The significant lack of evidence of Christianity's existence in China between the 3rd century and the 7th century can likely be attributed to the barriers which were placed in Persia by the Sassanids and the closure of the trade route in Turkestan.
Both events prevented Christians from staying in contact with their mother church, the Syriac Antiochian Church, thereby halting the spread of Christianity until the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Taizong, who had studied the Christian Scriptures which were given to him by the Assyrian missionary Alopen, realized "their propriety and truth and specifically ordered their preaching and transmission."
File:Nestorians-1-.jpg|thumb|The Xi'an Stele was erected in 781, and documents 150 years of early Christian history in China. It includes texts both in Chinese and in Syriac.
File:Yang Wengshe 1314.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Christian tombstone from Quanzhou with a 'Phags-pa inscription dated 1314.

Early period

The Christian apologist Arnobius claimed in his work Against the Heathen: Book II, that Christianity had reached the land of "Serica"—an ancient Roman name for northern China. However, to date, there is little to no archaeological evidence or knowledge about the pre-Church of the East classical Chinese and/or Tocharian church.
Two monks were preaching Christianity in India in the 6th century before they smuggled silkworm eggs from China to the Byzantine Empire.
The first documentation of Christianity entering China was written on the 8th-century Xi'an Stele. The stele records that Christians reached the Tang capital of Xi'an in 635, and were allowed to establish places of worship and to propagate their faith. The leader of the Christian travellers was Alopen, and his meeting with Emperor Taizong was the most influential development in Chinese Christian history yet, leading to the spread of the religion to a much greater extent than ever before. Seven Chinese Christian texts survived from that period.
Some modern scholars question whether Nestorianism is the proper term for the Christianity that was practised in China, since it did not adhere to what was preached by Nestorius. They instead prefer to refer to it as "Church of the East", a term which encompasses the various forms of early Christianity in Asia.
Despite inaccuracies by Tang historians regarding Christian history and doctrine, there was a significant community of scholars who translated the Old and New Testaments into Literary Chinese, and understood them fully.
In 845, at the height of the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, Emperor Wuzong of Tang decreed that Buddhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism be banned, and their very considerable assets forfeited to the state.
In 986 a monk reported to the Patriarch of the East:

Christianity is extinct in China; the native Christians have perished in one way or another; the church has been destroyed and there is only one Christian left in the land.

Karel Pieters noted that some Christian gravestones are dated from the Song and Liao dynasties, implying that some Christians remained in China in these eras.

Medieval period

Christianity was a major influence in the Mongol Empire, as several Mongol tribes were primarily Church of the East Christian, and many of the wives of Genghis Khan's descendants were Christian. Contacts with Western Christendom also began in this time period, via envoys from the papacy to the capital of the Yuan dynasty in Khanbaliq.
Church of the East Christianity was well established in China, as is attested by the monks Rabban Bar Sauma and Rabban Marcos, both of which had made a famous pilgrimage to the West, visiting many Church of the East communities along the way. Marcos was elected as Patriarch of the Church of the East, and Bar Sauma went as far as visiting the courts of Europe in 1287–1288, where he told Western monarchs about Christianity among the Mongols.
In 1294, Franciscan friars from Europe initiated mission work in China. For about a century they worked in parallel with the Church of the East Christians. The Franciscan mission disappeared from 1368, as the Ming dynasty set out to eject all foreign influences.
The Chinese called Muslims, Jews, and Christians starting in the Yuan dynasty by the same name, "Hui Hui". Christians were called "Hwuy who abstain from animals without the cloven foot", Muslims were called "Hwuy who abstain from pork", Jews were called "Hwuy who extract the sinews". "Hwuy-tsze" or "Hwuy-hwuy" is presently used almost exclusively for Muslims, but Jews were still called "Lan Maou Hwuy tsze" which means "Blue-cap Hui zi". At Kaifeng, Jews were called "Teaou-kin-keaou", "extract-sinew religion". Jews and Muslims in China shared the same name for synagogue and mosque, which were both called "Tsing-chin sze", "temple of purity and truth", the name dated to the thirteenth century. The synagogue and mosques were also known as "Le-pae sze". A tablet indicated that Judaism was once known as "Yih-tsze-lo-nee-keaou" and synagogues known as "Yih-tsze lo née leen", but it faded out of use.
It was also reported that competition with the Catholic Church and Islam were also factors in causing Church of the East Christianity to disappear in China; Catholics also considered the Church of the East as heretical, speaking of "controversies with the emissaries of Rome, and the progress of Mohammedanism, sapped the foundations of their ancient churches."
Kublai Khan doubled down on anti-Muslim anti-Halal slaughter laws under pressure from Christians like Isa Kelemechi who served in Kublai's court, according to Rashid al-Din. Isa Kelemechi was also instrumental in reinforcing anti-Muslim prohibitions in the Mongol realms, such as prohibiting halal slaughter and circumcision, and, according to Rashid al-Din encouraged denunciation of Muslims. Isa Kelemechi also showed to Khubilai the Muslim precept of "Kill the polytheists, all of them", raising the suspicion of the Mongols towards Muslims. According to Rashid al-Din, as a result "most Muslims left Khitai".
File:Athanasii Kircheri... China monumentis "Frontispicio".jpg|thumb|left|The frontispiece of Athanasius Kircher's 1667 China Illustrata, depicting Francis Xavier and Ignatius of Loyola adoring the monogram of Christ in Heaven while Johann Adam Schall von Bell and Matteo Ricci labor on the Jesuit missions to China

Jesuit missions in China

By the 16th century, there is no reliable information about any practising Christians remaining in China. Fairly soon after the establishment of the direct European maritime contact with China in 1513 and the creation of the Society of Jesus in 1540, at least some Chinese become involved with the Jesuit effort. As early as 1546, two Chinese boys became enrolled into the Jesuits' St. Paul's College in Goa, the capital of Portuguese India. Antonio, one of these two Christian Chinese, accompanied St. Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Jesuits, when he decided to start missionary work in China. However, Xavier was not able to find a way to enter the Chinese mainland and died in 1552 on Shangchuan Island off the coast of Guangdong.
With the Portuguese Empire establishing an enclave on Zhongshan Island's Macao Peninsula, Jesuits established a base nearby on Green Island. Alessandro Valignano, the new regional manager of the order, came to Macao in 1578–1579 and established St. Paul's College to begin training the missionaries in Chinese language and culture. He requested assistance from the orders' members in Goa in bringing over suitably talented linguists to staff the college and begin the mission in earnest.
In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work inside China, introducing Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and cartography. Missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Johann Adam Schall von Bell wrote Chinese catechisms and made influential converts like Xu Guangqi, establishing Christian settlements throughout the country and becoming close to the imperial court, particularly its Ministry of Rites, which oversaw official astronomy and astrology. Ricci and others including Michele Ruggieri, Philippe Couplet, and François Noël undertook a century-long effort in translating the Chinese classics into Latin and spreading knowledge of Chinese culture and history in Europe, influencing the developing Enlightenment.
The Jesuits also promoted phenomena of artistic hybridization in China, such as Chinese Christian cloisonné productions.
The introduction of the Franciscans and other orders of missionaries, however, led to a long-running controversy over Chinese customs and names for God. The Jesuits, the secularized scholar-bureaucrats, and eventually the Kangxi Emperor himself maintained that the Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius were respectful but non-religious rituals compatible with Christian doctrine; other orders pointed to the beliefs of the common people of China to show that it was impermissible idolatry and that the common Chinese names for God confused the Creator with His creation. Acting on the complaint of the Bishop of Fujian, Pope Clement XI finally ended the dispute with a decisive ban in 1704; his legate Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon issued summary and automatic excommunication of any Christian permitting Confucian rituals as soon as word reached him in 1707. By that time, however, Tournon and Bishop Maigrot had displayed such extreme ignorance in questioning before the throne that the Kangxi Emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism. Tournon's policies, confirmed by Clement's 1715 bull Ex illa die led to the swift collapse of all of the missions across China, with the last Jesuits—obliged to maintain allegiance to the papal rulings—finally being expelled after 1721. It was not until 1939 that the Catholic Church revisited its stance, with Pope Pius XII permitting some forms of Chinese customs. The Second Vatican Council later confirmed the new policy.