Xiao'erjing

Xiao'erjing, Xiaorjing, Xiaojing or Benjing, is a Perso-Arabic script used to write Sinitic languages, including Lanyin Mandarin, Zhongyuan Mandarin, Northeastern Mandarin, and Dungan. It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to Islam in China—mostly the Hui, but also the Dongxiang and the Salar—and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia. Orthographic reforms introduced the Latin script and later the Cyrillic script to the Dungan language, which continue to be used today.
Xiao'erjing is written from right to left, like other Perso-Arabic writing systems.
Xiao'erjing is unusual among Arabic script-based writing systems in that all vowels, long and short, are explicitly notated with diacritics, making it an abugida. Some other Arabic-based writing systems in China, such as the Uyghur Arabic alphabet, use letters and not diacritics to mark short vowels.

Nomenclature

Xiao'erjing does not have a single, standard name. In Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, and eastern Shaanxi, as well as also Beijing, Tianjin and the northeastern provinces, the script is referred to as Xiǎo'érjīng, which when shortened becomes Xiǎojīng or Xiāojīng. In Ningxia, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, western Shaanxi and the northwestern provinces, the script is referred to as Xiǎo'érjǐn. The Dongxiang people refer to it as the "Dongxiang script" or the "Huihui script"; The Salar refer to it as the "Salar script"; The Dungan of Central Asia used a variation of Xiao'erjing called the "Hui script", before being made to abandon the Arabic script for Latin and Cyrillic. According to A. Kalimov, a famous Dungan linguist, the Dungan of the former Soviet Union called this script щёҗин.

Origins

Since the arrival of Islam in Tang dynasty China beginning in the mid-7th century, many Arabic and Persian speaking people migrated into China. Centuries later, these peoples assimilated with the native Han Chinese, forming the Hui ethnicity of today. Many Chinese Muslim students attended madrasas to study Classical Arabic and the Qur'an. Because these students had a very basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated, they started using the Arabic script for Chinese. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of suras. This method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent. Currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiao'erjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of in Xi'an. The stele shows inscribed Qur'anic verses in Arabic as well as a short note of the names of the inscribers in Xiao'erjing. The stele was done in the year AH 740 in the Islamic calendar. Some old Xiao'erjing manuscripts are preserved in the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Usage

Xiao'erjing can be divided into two sets, the "Mosque system" and the "Daily system". The "Mosque system" is the system used by pupils and imams in mosques and madrasahs. It contains much Arabic and Persian religious lexicon, and no usage of Chinese characters. This system is relatively standardised, and could be considered a true writing system. The "Daily system" is the system used by the less educated for letters and correspondences on a personal level. Often simple Chinese characters are mixed in with the Arabic script, mostly discussing non-religious matters, and therewith relatively little Arabic and Persian loans. This practice can differ drastically from person to person. The system would be devised by the writer himself, with one's own understanding of the Arabic and Persian alphabets, mapped accordingly to one's own dialectal pronunciation. Often, only the letter's sender and the letter's receiver can understand completely what is written, while being very difficult for others to read. Unlike Hui Muslims in other areas of China, Muslims of the northwest provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu had no knowledge of the Han Kitab or Literary Chinese, they used Xiao'erjing. Xiao'erjing was used to annotate foreign language Islamic documents using the Chinese language.
Xiao'erjing was used mostly by Muslims who could not read Chinese characters. It was imperfect due to various factors. The differing Chinese dialects would require multiple different depictions with Xiao'erjing. Xiao'erjing cannot display the tones present in Chinese, syllable endings are indistinguishable, i.e. xi'an and xian. Xiao'erjing was much simpler than Chinese characters for representing Chinese.

Modern usage

In recent years, the usage of Xiao'erjing is nearing extinction due to the growing Chinese economy and the improvement of Chinese character education in rural parts of the country. Chinese characters, along with pinyin, have since replaced Xiao'erjing. Since the mid-1980s, there has been much scholarly work done within and outside China concerning Xiao'erjing. On-location research has been conducted and the users of Xiao'erjing have been interviewed. Written and printed materials of Xiao'erjing were also collected by researchers, the ones at Nanjing University being the most comprehensive. is leading a project in Japan concerning Xiao'erjing. Books are printed in Xiao'erjing. In Arabic language Qur'ans, Xiao'erjing annotations are used to help women read. Xiao'erjing is used to explain certain terms when used as annotations. Xiao'erjing is also used to write Chinese language Qurans.
A Dachang Hui Imam, Ma Zhenwu, wrote a Qur'an translation into Chinese including Chinese characters and Xiao'erjing.

Alphabet

Xiao'erjing has 31 letters, 4 of which are used to represent vowel sounds. The 31 letters consists of 28 letters borrowed from Arabic, 4 letters borrowed from Persian along with 2 modified letters and 1 extra letter unique to Xiao'erjing.

Initials and consonants

Below table demonstrates the list of consonants, and cases in which two consonants represent the same initial, in the bopomofo order.
Note:

is more commonly used instead of in Linxia manuscripts to better closely match the local dialect's pronunciation.
is more commonly used instead of in Linxia manuscripts to better closely match the local dialect's pronunciation.

Below is the list of initials and consonants used in Xiao'erjing.

	Symbol	Final–Medial–Initial	Standard Chinese	Bopomofo	Pinyin	Arabic	Example	Notes
1			/a/,	ㄚ	a, a-, -a, -a-			Vowel sound
2			/p/, -	ㄅ	b-
3			/pʰ/ -	ㄆ	p-	none		Borrowed from Persian
4			/tʰ/ -	ㄊ	t-			Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ong, -uan, -ui, -un, -uo
5			-, -	ㄑ、ㄒ	x-			Historically, manuscripts have also used س and ش
6			/ʈ͡ʂ/,	ㄓ	zh-			Sound change occurs when representing Chinese
7			/ʈ͡ʂʰ/	ㄔ	ch-	none		Borrowed from Persian
8			/x/ -	ㄏ	h-			Used before syllable with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -e, -ei, -en, -eng
9			/x/ -	ㄏ	h-			Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -e, -ei, -en, -eng
10			/t/, -; -	ㄉ	d-			Used by some manuscripts to represent a few syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initial j-. More commonly "ݣ" was used
11			/ɻ/, -	ㄖ	r-			Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -eng, -un, -uo
11			/ɻ/ -	ㄦ	-r			Represents the rhotic final -r sound
12			/ʦ/, -	ㄗ	z-			Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ong, -ui, -un, -uo "ذ" is used by some manuscripts instead
13			/ɻ/, -	ㄖ	r-	none		Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -eng, -un, -uo
14			/s/ -, -	ㄙ	s-			Used before syllable with all Hanyu Pinyin finals except for -ua, -ui, -un, -uo. Historically, manuscripts have also used this letter for Hanyu Pinyin initial x-
15			/ʂ/ -, -	ㄕ	sh-			Historically, manuscripts have also used this letter for Hanyu Pinyin initial x-
16			/s/ -	ㄙ	s-			Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ua, -ui, -un, -uo
17			/ʦʰ/ -	ㄘ	c-	none
18			/t/, -; -	ㄉ	t-			Used before syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ong, -uan, -ui, -un, -uo
19			/ʦ/, -	ㄗ	z-			Sound change occurs when representing Chinese. Used before syllable with the Hanyu Pinyin finals -ong, -ui, -un, -uo
20				ㄜ, ㄦ, ㄛ, ㄡ	e, er, o, ou			A vowel when representing Chinese, but considered a consonant when representing Arabic and Persian loans
21			/f/ -	ㄈ	f-
22			/k/, -	ㄍ	g-			Sound change occurs when representing Chinese
23			/kʰ/ -	ㄎ	k-
23			-	ㄑ	q-			Historically, in Linxia manuscripts, ٿ is more commonly used to represent Hanyu Pinyin initial q-, to more closely match the local dialect's pronunciation
24			-	ㄐ	j-	none		Used in most manuscripts to represent "j-". Some manuscripts drop the three dots and simply use "ک"
25			/l/ -	ㄌ	l-
26			/m/ -	ㄇ	m-
27			/n/ -	ㄋ	n-
28			/u/,	ㄨ	wu, wa, wai, wang, wan, wei, wen, weng, wo, u-, -u, -u-	,		Vowel sound
29			/i/,	ㄧ	yi, i-, -i, -i-	,		Borrowed from Persian and a vowel sound.
30			,,	ㄩ	yi, yin, yun

Additional consonants

The consonants in this list are either lesser used alternatives used in regional varieties of Xiao'erjing, or they are common Arabic or Persian letters that are exclusively used for writing loan words in Xiao'erjing texts.

	Symbol	Final–Medial–Initial	Standard Mandarin pronunciation	Bopomofo	Hanyu Pinyin	Arabic pronunciation	Example	Notes
1			-	ㄑ	q-	none		Unique Xiao'erjing letter. Historically, in Linxia manuscripts, this letter instead of ک was used to represent Hanyu Pinyin initial q-, to more closely match the local dialect's pronunciation
2			/ʦ/, -	ㄗ	z-			Some manuscripts use this letter instead of ز
3			none		none			Only used with Arabic loans
4			none		none			Only used with Arabic loans
5			none	ㄍ	none	none		Borrowed from Persian and only used with Persian loans
6			/x/ -	ㄏ	h-			Only used with Persian and Arabic loans

Finals and vowels

Below is the list of final and vowel endings in each syllable representing each Hanzi in Xiao'erjing.

	Script	Standard Chinese pronunciation	Bopomofo	Hanyu Pinyin	Example	Notes
1			ㄚ	a
2		-	ㄚ	-a
3			ㄞ	ai
4		-	ㄞ	-ai
5			ㄢ	an
6		-	ㄢ	-an
7			ㄤ	ang
8		-	ㄤ	-ang
9			ㄠ	ao
10		-	ㄠ	-ao
11		\|	ㄜ	e
12		-\|	ㄜ	-e		For Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, g-, k, t-
12		-\|	ㄜ	-e		For other Hanyu Pinyin initials
13	none		ㄟ	ei	none	Rare, no representation in Xiao'erjing
14		-	ㄟ	-ei		For other Hanyu Pinyin initials Arabic diacritic ﹾ is added to letters that don't connect to the following letter, so that the confusion of reading two characters as one syllable can be avoided
15			ㄣ	en
16		-	ㄣ	-en		For Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, f-, m-, n-, p-
16		-	ㄣ	-en		For other Hanyu Pinyin initials
17	none		ㄥ	eng	none	Rare, no representation in Xiao'erjing
18		-	ㄥ	-eng		Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial r-
18		-	ㄥ	-eng		For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials
19			ㄦ	er
20		-	ㄦ	-r		Represents the rhotic final -r sound
21			ㄧ	yi
22		- / - / -	ㄧ	-i		Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial s-
22		- / - / -	ㄧ	-i		For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials
23			ㄧㄚ	ya
24		-	ㄧㄚ	-ia		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, j-, q-, x-, l-
25			ㄧㄢ	yan
26		-	ㄧㄢ	-ian
27			ㄧㄤ	yang
28		-	ㄧㄤ	-iang
29			ㄧㄠ	yao
30		-	ㄧㄠ	-iao
31			ㄧㄝ	ye
32		-	ㄧㄝ	-
33			ㄧㄣ	yin
34		-	ㄧㄣ	-in
35			ㄧㄥ	ying
36		-	ㄧㄥ	-ing		After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials d-, t-
36		-	ㄧㄥ	-ing		After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-
36		-	ㄧㄥ	-ing		After syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, p-, m-, n-, l-
37			ㄩㄥ	yong
38	or	-	ㄩㄥ	-iong		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-
39		\|	ㄧㄡ	you
40		-\|	ㄧㄡ	-iu
41			ㄛ	o
42		-	ㄨㄥ	-ong		Only for Hanyu Pinyin initial s-, r-
42		-	ㄨㄥ	-ong		For all other Hanyu Pinyin initials
43		\|	ㄡ	ou
44		-\|	ㄡ	-ou
45			ㄨ	wu
46		-	ㄨ	-u		Arabic letter و is added to letters that don't connect to the following letter, so that the confusion of reading two characters as one syllable can be avoided
46		-	ㄨ	-u		Arabic letter و is added to letters that don't connect to the following letter, so that the confusion of reading two characters as one syllable can be avoided
47			ㄨㄚ	wa
48		-	ㄨㄚ	-ua
49			ㄨㄞ	wai
50		-	ㄨㄞ	-uai
51		\|	ㄨㄢ	wan
52		-	ㄨㄢ	-uan
53		\|	ㄨㄤ	wang
54		-	ㄨㄤ	-uang
55			ㄨㄟ	wei
56		-	ㄨㄟ	-ui
57		\|	ㄨㄣ	wen
58		-	ㄨㄣ	-un
59		\|	ㄨㄥ	weng
60			ㄨㄛ	wo
61		-	ㄨㄛ	-uo
61		-	ㄨㄛ	-o		Hanyu Pinyin initials b-, p-, m-, f-
62			ㄩ	yu
63		-	ㄩ	-ü, -u		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-, l-, n-
64			ㄩㄢ	yuan
65		-	ㄩㄢ	-uan		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-
66			ㄩㄝ	yue
67		-	ㄩㄝ	-üe, -ue		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-, l-, n-
68			ㄩㄣ	yun
69		-	ㄩㄣ	-un		Limited to syllables with the Hanyu Pinyin initials j-, q-, x-

Vowels in Arabic and Persian loans follow their respective orthographies, namely, only the long vowels are represented and the short vowels are omitted. Although the sukun can be omitted when representing Arabic and Persian loans, it cannot be omitted when representing Chinese. The exception being that of oft-used monosyllabic words which can have the sukun omitted from writing. For example, when emphasised, "的" and "和" are written as and ; when unemphasised, they can be written with the sukuns as and, or without the sukuns as and.
Similarly, the sukun can also sometimes represent the Chinese - final, as such. This is sometimes replaced by the fatḥatan, the kasratan, or the dammatan in manuscripts.

In polysyllabic words, the final 'alif that represents the long vowel -ā can be omitted and replaced by a fatḥah representing the short vowel -ă.

Xiao'erjing is similar to Hanyu Pinyin in the respect that words are written as one, while a space is inserted between words. A shall be used for separation between different syllables within the same word. Unlike Persian or Arabic, syllables are not continuously connected.
When representing Chinese words, the shaddah sign represents a doubling of the entire syllable on which it rests. It has the same function as the Chinese iteration mark "々".
Arabic punctuation marks can be used with Xiao'erjing as can Chinese punctuation marks, they can also be mixed.

Example

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Xiao'erjing, as well as simplified and traditional Chinese characters, pinyin, and English:
;Xiao'erjing:
; Simplified characters: 「人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神互相对待。」
; Traditional characters:
「人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應兄弟關係的精神互相對待。」
; Correspondence between Chinese characters and Xiao'erjing: 「
; Pinyin:
; English: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Al-Fatiha (الفَاتِحَةِ)

Below is the first sura of the Quran, Al-Fatiha, its original Arabic text, English translation, as well as the Chinese translation in Simplified Chinese characters and in Xiao'erjing, as published in 1995 by Ma Zhenwu.
In the Xiao'erjing version of this sura, the author may have made minor choices about characters and pronunciations that may differ from what's shown in this article, and they may even have minor inconsistencies in the text itself. Furthermore, as is the tradition for Xiao'erjing texts, there are instances where Arabic or Persian loanwords are used and written directly, these are shown in bold. It's noteworthy to mention that in this document, the Hanzi characters are written from right to left, following the flow of the Arabic text of the Quran and the Xiao'erjing translation.

English translation	Simplified Characters	Pinyin	Xiao'erjing	Al-Fatiha Arabic original
1. In the name of Allāh, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful! 2. praise is to Allāh, Lord of the worlds, 3. The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful, 4. Sovereign of the Day of Recompense! 5. It is You we worship and You we ask for help! 6-7. Guide us to the straight path, the path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have earned anger or of those who are astray.	1. 〈我〉凭着普慈〈今世的，独慈〉，后世的，主的尊名、〈起〉 2. 感赞调养普世界的. 3. 普慈的独慈的. 4. 执掌还报日子的主. 5. 我们唯独拜你,我们唯独求你相助. 6-7. 求你引领我们至端庄的路道那一些人的路道. 你在他们上施过恩的，一些不受怒恼的，与一些不迷路的.	italic=no	١-<وَ> پِئٍ جَوْ پُو ژِ <ݣِئٍ شِ> دِ دُ ژِ <خْخُوشِ> دِ جُو دِ ظُوٌ مٍ «اِبْتِدَاءُ» ٢-قًا زًا تِیَوْ یاۤنْ پُو شِ ݣِیَہ دِ ٣-پُو ژِ دِ دُ ژِ دِ ۴-جیِ جِاۤنْ خُوَنْ بَوْ يَوْمَ زِ دِ جُو ۵-وَ مٌ وِی دُ بَیْ نِہ، وَ مٌ وِی دُ کِیُو نِہ ثِیاۤنْ جُوُ. ۶-۷-کِیُو نِہ یِ لٍ وَ مٌ جِی دُوَن جُواَنْ دِ لُ دَوْ نَا یِ ثِیَہ اُناس دِ لُ دَوْ. نِہ زَ تَا مٌ شِاۤنْ شِ قُوَ عٍ دِ. یِ ثِیَہ بُو شِیُو نُو نَوْ دِ. ئِئِہ یِ ثِیَہ بُو مِ لُ دِ.	١-بِسْمِ اللَّهِ الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ ٢-الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ ٣-الرَّحْمَٰنِ الرَّحِيمِ ٤-مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ ٥-إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ ٦-۷-اهْدِنَا الصِّرَاطَ الْمُسْتَقِيمَ، صِرَاطَ الَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ غَيْرِ الْمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا الضَّالِّينَ