Swedish phonology

has a large vowel inventory, with nine vowels distinguished in quality and to some degree in quantity, making 18 vowel phonemes in most dialects. Another notable feature is the pitch accent, a development which it shares with Norwegian. Swedish pronunciation of most consonants is similar to that of other Germanic languages.
There are 18 consonant phonemes, of which and show considerable variation depending on both social and dialectal context.
Finland Swedish has a slightly different phonology.

Vowels

Generalities

Swedish has nine vowels that, as in many other Germanic languages, exist in pairs of long and short versions. The length covaries with the quality of the vowels, as shown in the table below, with short variants being more centered and lax. The length is generally viewed as the primary distinction, with quality being secondary. No short vowels appear in open stressed syllables. The front vowels appear in rounded-unrounded pairs: –, –, – and –.
There is some variation in the interpretations of vowel length's phonemicity., for example, treats vowel quantity as its own separate phoneme so that long and short vowels are allophones of a single vowel phoneme. have been suggested to be underspecified for backness to explain the difference with their short counterparts.

Rounded vowels have two types of rounding:
*,, and are compressed:,, and
*,, and its pre- allophone, and its pre- allophone, and are protruded:,,,,,, and.
Close vowels:
* In Central Standard Swedish, are very peripheral and have been reported to be fully close in contemporaneous Stockholm speech, i.e. cardinal,.
* In Central Standard Swedish, are centralised to various degree and may be accompanied by simultaneous friction, this buzzing effect may be becoming an important auditory clue. In fact they are so centralised in Stockholm that condiders none of both front in the variety.
* found the roundedness of an appropriate question for further research, from her data on Stockholm speakers. In Göteborg a merger of and has been reported for younger speakers.
* Central Standard Swedish is a near-close near-front compressed vowel. In other dialects, may be central.
Mid vowels:
* are mid. In contemporary Stockholm speech, this is different, the main allophone of: is open-mid and near close.
* is open-mid. In contemporary Stockholm speech, the main allophone is close-mid:.
Open vowels:
* has been variously described as central and front.
* In Central Standard Swedish, long is weakly rounded, on par in openness with lowered or even closer. This also occurs in Lund. The rounding is stronger in Gothenburg and weaker in most North Swedish dialects.

One of the varieties of is made with a constriction that is more forward than is usual. Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson describe this vowel as being pronounced "by slightly lowering the body of the tongue while simultaneously raising the blade of the tongue Acoustically this pronunciation is characterized by having a very high F3, and an F2 which is lower than that in." They suggest that this may be the usual Stockholm pronunciation of.
In many central and eastern areas, the contrast between short and is lost. The loss of this contrast has the effect that hetta and hätta are pronounced the same. Since the 1700, Stockholm accents began undergoing the same merger in the long system; with pairs as heda and häda, since reversed.
In Central Standard Swedish, unstressed is slightly retracted, but is still a front vowel rather than central. However, the latter pronunciation is commonly found in Southern Swedish. Therefore, begå 'to commit' is pronounced in Central Standard Swedish and in Southern Swedish. Before, southerners may use a back vowel. In Central Standard Swedish, a true acoustic schwa can be heard in the voiced release of voiced consonnant, as in e.g. bädd 'bed'.
In some pronunciations, traditionally characteristic of the varieties spoken around Gothenburg and in Östergötland, but today more common e.g. in Stockholm and especially in younger speakers, and merge, most commonly into . Words like fördömande and fördummande are then often pronounced similarly or identically, as.
Uterance finally, vowels are progresively devoiced. This is illustrated by reasearchers of the 80' focusing on the so called nolla-hallon effect; the word nolla played backward is unmistakenably perceived as hallon.

Pre- allophones

, , and are lowered to,, and, respectively, when preceding.
Older accounts extend the context to pre- and less often post-.
Another account of varieties lowering shows to be centralised i.e., ; and to as open as i.e..

Lowering of

Younger speakers have lower realisations of, so that läsa and köpa are pronounced and instead of older standard and. These speakers often also pronounce pre-rhotic and even lower, i.e. and. This is especially true for the long allophone.
This lowered pronunciation has spread to an unknown extent onto the country and has been reported from Lund to Stockholm.
suggests the contrast between and their pre- allophone to be mainly carried by formant dynamic and onsets, the qualities gliding more towards the main allophone for pre-s. She also considers reasonable to assume one single allophone due to their significant overlap. Also, is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the long.
This lowering phenomenon probably has phonemic motivations, as, combined with other minor shifts, it makes Swedish go from a language with 4 different height distinction to 3. Here is a synthesis of some provisory anaylses.

groups in one central category, according to their realisation.
Diphthongisation

Patterns of diphthongs of long vowels occur in three major dialect groups.
In Central Standard Swedish:

the high vowels,, and are realized as narrow closing diphthongs with fully close ending points:. Engstrand transcribes these diphthongs with semivowels :. Elsewhere in the article, the broad transcription is used.
* and in particular, have a centralising tendency. Also is more strongly closing, greatly contributing to its diphthongal character.
*Diphthongisation of is reported in Stockholm vernacular at the beginning of the 20th century.
the mid vowels and are often realized as diphthongs, alternatively described as centering or opening. They could be transcribed,. Elsewhere in the article, the broad transcription is used.
* and have also been reported to diphthongise, but recent accounts failed to certify this for contemporary accents, making them pattern, for the most part, with. Narrowly, or lowered.
* Diphthongisation in a variety close to what would become the standard is first reported in Södertörn for all long vowels in the 17th century and in the Central Standard for mid vowels at the beginning of the 20th century.

In Southern Swedish dialects, particularly in Scania and Blekinge, the diphthongs are preceded by a rising of the tongue from a central position so that and are realized as and respectively.
The third type of distinctive diphthongs occur in the dialects of Gotland. The pattern of diphthongs is more complex than those of southern and eastern Sweden;, and tend to rise while and fall;,, and are not diphthongized at all.

Example table

Consonants

The table below shows the Swedish consonant phonemes in spoken Standard Swedish.
are dental, but can be either dental or alveolar. If is alveolar, then is also alveolar. Dental realization of is the predominant one in Central Standard Swedish.
Uterance finally, voiced obstruents are followed by vocalic release itself smoothing out into a voiceless perdiod. This is illustrated by another backward speech example where the word viv and its definite form vivet are both heard as the nonce word heviv.

Stops

Medial lenis stops can turn into fricatives or approximants in casual speech.
Initial fortis stops are aspirated in stressed position, but unaspirated when preceded by within the same morpheme. In Finland Swedish, aspiration does not occur and initial lenis stops are usually voiced throughout. Word-medial lenis stops are sometimes voiceless in Finland, a likely influence from Finnish.
Plosives are often fricated near fricatives.
Preaspiration of medial and final fortis stops, including the devoicing of preceding sonorants, is common, though its length and normativity varies from dialect to dialect, being optional in Central Standard Swedish but obligatory in, for example, the Swedish dialects of Gräsö, Vemdalen and Arjeplog. In Gräsö, preaspiration is blocked in certain environments, while it is a general feature of fortis medial consonants in Central Standard Swedish. When not preaspirated, medial and final fortis stops are simply unaspirated. In clusters of fortis stops, the second "presonorant" stop is unaspirated and the former patterns with other medial final stops.
The phonetic attributes of preaspiration also vary. In the Swedish of Stockholm, preaspiration is often realized as a fricative subject to the character of surrounding vowels or consonants so that it may be labial, velar, or dental; it may also surface as extra length of the preceding vowel. In the province of Härjedalen, though, it resembles or. The duration of preaspiration is highest in the dialects of Vemdalen and Arjeplog. Helgason notes that preaspiration is longer after short vowels, in lexically stressed syllables, as well as in pre-pausal position.

Fricatives

is dental in Central Standard Swedish, but retracted alveolar in Blekinge, Bohuslän, Halland and Scania.
The Swedish fricatives and are often considered to be the most difficult aspects of Swedish pronunciation for foreign students. The combination of occasionally similar and rather unusual sounds as well as the large variety of partly overlapping allophones of often presents difficulties for non-natives in telling the two apart. The existence of a third sibilant in the form of tends to confuse matters even more, and in some cases realizations that are labiodental can also be confused with. The historic palatized kj and tj sound, is an affricate or in Finland Swedish.
The Swedish phoneme and its alleged coarticulation is a difficult and complex issue debated amongst phoneticians. Though the acoustic properties of its allophones are fairly similar, the realizations can vary considerably according to geography, age, gender as well as social context and are notoriously difficult to describe and transcribe accurately. Most common are various sh-like sounds, with occurring mainly in northern Sweden and in Finland. A voiceless uvular fricative,, can sometimes be used in the varieties influenced by major immigrant languages like Arabic and Kurdish. The different realizations can be divided roughly into the following categories:

"Dark sounds" –, commonly used in the Southern Standard Swedish. Some of the varieties specific, but not exclusive, to areas with a larger immigrant population that commonly realizes the phoneme as a voiceless uvular fricative.
"Light sounds" –, used in the northern varieties and, and in Finland Swedish.
Combination of "light" and "dark" – darker sounds are used as morpheme initials preceding stressed vowels, while the lighter sounds are used before unstressed vowels and at the end of morphemes.

See main article for more detail.
Utterance initially, is voiced and gets so progressively, as opposed to vowel onsets which aprubtly start the buzzing. Also the aspiration noise is not an important auditory cue to its presence.

Sonorants

has distinct variations in Standard Swedish. For most speakers, the realization as an alveolar trill occurs only in contexts where emphatic stress is used. In Central Swedish, it is often pronounced as a fricative or approximant, which is especially frequent in weakly articulated positions such as word-finally and somewhat less frequent in stressed syllable onsets, in particular after other consonants. It may also be an apico-alveolar tap. One of the most distinct features of the southern varieties is the uvular realization of, which may be a trill, a fricative or an approximant. In Finland, is usually an apical trill, and may be an approximant postvocalically.
Variations of are not as common, though some phonetic variation exists, such as a retroflex flap that exists as an allophone in proximity to a labial or velar consonant or after most long vowels, the same thing happens for.
In casual speech, the nasals tend to assimilate to the place of articulation of a following obstruent.
and are pronounced with weak friction and function phonotactically with the sonorants.

Retroflexion

In most varieties of Swedish that use an alveolar , the combination of with coronal consonants produces retroflex consonant realizations, a recursive sandhi process called "retroflexion". The process of retroflexion is not limited to just one coronal and applies to the whole cluster. The combination of and does not uniformly cause retroflexion, so that it may also be pronounced with two separate consonants, and even, occasionally in a few words and expressions, as a mere.
In Gothenburg and neighbouring areas the retroflex consonants are substituted by alveolar ones, with their effects still remaining. However, does not become but instead.
As the adjacent table shows, this process is not limited by word boundaries, though there is still some sensitivity to the type of boundary between the and the dental in that retroflexion is less likely with boundaries higher up in the prosodic hierarchy. In the southern varieties, which use a uvular, retroflex realizations do not occur. An spelled usually will not trigger retroflexion. Retroflexion also does not usually occur in Finland.

Prosody

Stress

In Swedish, stress is not fixed. Primary stress can fall on one of the last three syllables in a word’s stem. This can lead to surface contrasts based solely on difference in position of stress:

formel 'formula'
formell 'formal'

Primary stressed syllables are always metrically heavy, i.e. contain either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant. In phonological analyses of Swedish, stressed syllables in underived forms are assumed to be associated with a basic moraic trochaic foot _σ, e.g. bˈil 'car'. More whole-word based analyses of metrical structure where affixes are included also assume other foot types, in particular, syllabic trochaic feet _Ft, bˈil-ar 'cars'. Affixes affect stress to a considerable degree in the sense that inflectional suffixes can never receive primary stress, whereas many derivational suffixes can tent-ˈabel 'examinable'. Disyllabic words with accent 2 like ˈandˌe ‘spirit’, kvˈinnˌa ‘woman’, bˈilˌar 'cars' have secondary stress on the second syllable. In the Swedish Academy's lexicon, these disyllables are transcribed with the stress pattern 3 2, e.g. kvin³a² where stands for primary stressed syllable with accent 2 and. This secondary stress is assumed to have existed in Old Norse. Compound words have primary stress on the first element and secondary stress on the last element bˈil-dels-butˌiken 'car-part shop'.

Pitch accents

Stressed syllables carry one of two different tones, often described as pitch accents, or tonal word accents. They are called acute and grave accent, accent 1 and accent 2. The actual realization of these two tones varies from dialect to dialect. In the central Swedish dialect of Stockholm, accent 1 is characterized by a low tone at the beginning of the stressed syllable and accent 2 by a high tone at the beginning of the stressed syllable. When the word is in a prominent/focused position, a high tone often occurs following the word accent. In accent 2 words, this results in two high tones within the word, hence the term "two-peaked" for this dialect. In southern Swedish, a "one-peaked" dialect, accent 1 is realized as a high tone at the beginning of the stressed syllable and accent 2, by a low tone.
Generally, the grave accent is characterized by a later timing of the word accent pattern as compared with the acute accent.
The phonemicity of this tonal system is demonstrated in the nearly 300 pairs of two-syllable words differentiated only by their use of either grave or acute accent. Outside of these pairs, the main tendency for tone is that the acute accent appears in monosyllables while the grave accent appears in polysyllabic words. Polysyllabic forms resulting from declension or derivation also tend to have a grave accent except when it is the definite article that is added. This tonal distinction has been present in Scandinavian dialects at least since Old Norse though a greater number of polysyllables now have an acute accent. These are mostly words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse, but have subsequently become disyllabic, as have many loanwords. For example, Old Norse kømr has become kommer in Swedish.
The distinction can be shown with the minimal pair anden 'the mallard' and anden 'the spirit'.

"Acute" accent : 'the mallard'
"Grave" accent : 'the spirit'

The exact realization of the tones also depends on the syllable's position in an utterance. For instance, at the beginning of an utterance, the acute accent may have a rising rather than slightly falling pitch on the first syllable. Also, these are word tones that are spread across the syllables of the word. In trisyllabic words with the grave accent, the second fall in pitch is distributed across the second and third syllables:

Grave-accent trisyllable: flickorna 'the girls'

The position of the tone is dependent upon stress: The first stressed syllable has a high or falling tone, as does the following syllable in grave-accented words.
In most Finland-Swedish varieties, however, the distinction between grave and acute accent is missing.
A reasonably complete list of uncontroversial so-called minimal pairs can be seen below. The two words in each pair are distinguished solely by having different tone. In those cases where both words are nouns it would have been possible to list the genitive forms of the words as well, thereby creating another word pair, but this has been avoided. A few word pairs where one of the words is a plural form with the suffix -or have been included. This is due to the fact that many Swedish-speakers in all parts of Sweden pronounce the suffix -or the same way as -er.

Translation acute	Acute accent	Grave accent	Translation grave
stern	akter	akter	acts
the elm	almen	allmän	public, general
the As	A:na	ana	suspect
the mallard	anden	anden	the spirit
the reverse gear, the crate	backen	backen	the slope
the ball	balen	balen	the nest
the bulb	ballen	ballen	the dick
the Bs	B:na	bena	parting
binds	binder	bindor	sanitary towels
the piece	biten	biten	bitten
the book	boken	boken	overripe, spoilt
the nests	bona	bona	polish
the nests'	bonas	bonas	be polished
the bristles	borsten	borsten	the brush, the broom
the brace	brassen	brassen	the Brazilian
the letters	breven	brevvän	pen pal
breaks	brister	brister	flaws
the well	brunnen	brunnen	burnt
the edges of forests	brynen	brynen	whetstones
the edge of a forest	brynet	brynet	the whetstone
the cage	buren	buren	carried
the pranks	busen	busen	the hooligan
the trolling spoons	dragen	dragen	drawn, tipsy
the draught, the trolling spoon	draget	draget	drawn
the speed, the energy	drivet	drivet	drifted, driven
the Es	E:na	ena	unite, unify
male name	Enar	enar	junipers
the falls	fallen	fallen	fallen
the fall	fallet	fallet	fallen
fastens	fäster	fester	parties
the fish	fisken	fisken	acts of fishing
the Fs	F:en	FN	The UN
the phone	fonen	fånen	the idiot
the armfuls	fången	fången	the prisoner
the armful	fånget	fånget	caught
the rug	fällen	fällen	places where trees have been felled
fells, cuts down	fäller	fällor	traps
the party, the feast	festen	fästen	places where something has been attached
the bow	fören	fören	conditions of the ground for travelling
towards the bow	förut	förut	before, earlier
marries	gifter	gifter	poisons
the poison	giftet	giftet	the marriage
the Js	J:na	gina	tackle, take a shortcut
the deal	given	given	given
the candles	ljusen	gjusen	the osprey
the griffin	gripen	gripen	grabbed, gripped
the walkway	gången	gången	gone
the heath	heden	heden	heathen
has the time to do something	hinner	hinnor	coatings
the cuts	huggen	huggen	chopped
the directions	hållen	hållen	held
the direction	hållet	hållet	held
the Hs	H:na	håna	mock, taunt
higher	högre	högre	the man to the right
the ide	iden	iden	bears' dens for hibernation
the Is	I:na	Ina	female name
ahead of, in front of	inför	inför	introduces, introduce
the sounds	ljuden	juden	the Jew
Japanese syllabary	kana	kana	slide
the carat	karaten	karaten	the karate
the cat	katten	katten	a profanity
the bang	knallen	knallen	the small hill, the pedlar
the knot	knuten	knuten	tied
the bowler hat	kubben	kubben	the chopping block
the litter	kullen	kullen	the hill
the corps	kåren	kåren	the breeze
the lichen	laven	laven	the headframe
leads	leder	leder	joints
the military service	lumpen	lumpen	contemptible, lousy
the moth	malen	malen	ground, milled
the milk	mjölken	mjölken	the fish seed
the courage	modet	modet	the fashion
the mop	moppen	moppen	the moped
the names	namnen	namnen	the namesake
the norm	normen	norrmän	Norwegians
the tack	nubben	nubben	the shot
pinches	nyper	nypor	Grips made with the thumb against one or more of the other fingers
name of a Norse God	Oden	oden	odes
the mite	oret	orätt	injustice
the rabble	packen	packen	the bale
clown	pajas	pajas	be destroyed
panther	panter	panter	deposits
Persians	perser	pärser	ordeals
Poland	Polen	pålen	the pole
pollen	pollen	pållen	the horsey
radar	radar	radar	present tense of 'rada', as in 'rada upp'
grid	raster	raster	breaks
rule	regel	regel	latch
travels	reser	resor	journeys, trips
the melee, the fighting	rivet	rivet	torn
cylinder that rotates and is used for painting	roller	roller	roles
diamonds	ruter	rutor	squares, panes
the route	rutten	rutten	rotten
the rye	rågen	rågen	the overmeasure
the nymphs	råna	råna	rob
the horizontal bars	räcken	räcken	railings
the horizontal bar	räcket	räcket	the railing
runs	ränner	rännor	chutes
sabbath	sabbat	sabbat	destroyed, sabotaged
cedar	ceder	seder	customs
the Cs	C:na	sena	late, sinew
cider	cider	sidor	pages
the view	sikten	sikten	sights
the barks	skallen	skallen	the skull
the spoon	skeden	skeden	stages
the shift	skiftet	skiftet	the change
the shifts	skiften	skiften	changes
the ejaculations	skjuten	skjuten	shot
the speed, the ejaculation	skjutet	skjutet	shot
the shots	skotten	skotten	the Scotsman
the shower	skuren	skuren	cut
the gunner	skytten	skytten	acts of shooting
the battles, the hits	slagen	slagen	beaten
the battle, the hit	slaget	slaget	beaten
the toil	slitet	slitet	worn
the ends	sluten	sluten	closed
the end	slutet	slutet	closed
the family	släkten	släkten	genera
the cop	snuten	snuten	past participle of 'snyta'
the zoos	zoona	sona	expiate
the stocks	spaden	spaden	the spade
the spas	spana	spana	watch, observe, search
bursts, cracks	spricker	sprickor	cracks
the steps	stegen	stegen	the ladder
fights	strider	strider	fights, battles
the moving patches/bands	stråken	stråken	the bow
the stubble	stubben	stubben	the tree stump
the racks	ställen	ställen	places
the rack	stället	stället	the place
the sucking device	sugen	sugen	sucked, in the mood for something
the urge	suget	suget	sucked, in the mood for something
the seed, the grain	säden	säden	things intended for sowing
the cell	cellen	sällen	the brute
the grips	tagen	tagen	taken
the grip	taget	taget	taken
the tank	tanken	tanken	the thought
toner	toner	toner	tones
the trot	traven	traven	the pile, the stack
the plot	tomten	tomten	Santa Claus, the gnome
the inch	tummen	tummen	the thumb
sign	tecken	täcken	bed covers
the point, the cusp	udden	udden	the headland
uphill	uppför	uppför	present tense or imperative of 'uppföra'
downhill	utför	utför	present tense or imperative of 'utföra'
the hole in the ice	vaken	vaken	awake
the whale	valen	valen	stiff, numb
the shrouds	vanten	vanten	the mitten
the vase	vasen	vasen	the bundle of brushwood
the bay	viken	viken	folded
makes a whistling sound	viner	viner	wines
the knobs	vreden	vreden	the rage, the wrath
the host/the world	värden/världen	värden	values
male name	Oskar	åskar	present tense of 'åska'
the gravel	ören	ören	pennies
the gravel	öret	öret	the penny

Note that karaten/karaten is the only pair with more than two syllables. The word pair länder and länder could have been included, but this one is controversial. For those speakers who have grave accent in the plural of länd, the definite plural forms will also constitute a three-syllable minimal pair: länderna vs. länderna. Although examples with more than two syllables are very few in Standard Swedish, it is possible to find other three-syllable pairs in regional dialects, such as Värmländska: hunnera vs. hunnera, ändera/ännera vs. ändera/ännera, etc.
Prosody in Swedish often varies substantially between different dialects including the spoken varieties of Standard Swedish. As in most languages, stress can be applied to emphasize certain words in a sentence. To some degree prosody may indicate questions, although less so than in English.

Phonotactics

At a minimum, a stressed syllable must consist of either a long vowel or a short vowel and a long consonant. Like many other Germanic languages, Swedish has a tendency for closed syllables with a relatively large number of consonant clusters in initial as well as final position. Though not as complex as that of most Slavic languages, examples of up to 7 consecutive consonants can occur when adding Swedish inflections to some foreign loanwords or names, and especially when combined with the tendency of Swedish to make long compound nouns. The syllable structure of Swedish can therefore be described with the following formula:
This means that a Swedish one-syllable morpheme can have up to three consonants preceding the vowel that forms the nucleus of the syllable, and three consonants following it. Examples: skrämts or sprängts . All but one of the consonant phonemes,, can occur at the beginning of a morpheme, though there are only 6 possible three-consonant combinations, all of which begin with, and a total of 31 initial two-consonant combinations. All consonants except for and can occur finally, and the total number of possible final two-consonant clusters is 62.
In some cases this can result in very complex combinations, such as in västkustskt, consisting of västkust with the adjective suffix -sk and the neuter suffix -t.
Central Standard Swedish and most other Swedish dialects feature a rare "complementary quantity" feature wherein a phonologically short consonant follows a long vowel and a long consonant follows a short vowel; this is true only for stressed syllables and all segments are short in unstressed syllables. This arose from the historical shift away from a system with a four-way contrast inherited from Proto-Germanic to a three-way one, and finally the present two-way one; certain Swedish dialects have not undergone these shifts and exhibit one of the other two phonotactic systems instead. In literature on Swedish phonology, there are a number of ways to transcribe complementary relationship, including:

A length mark for either the vowel or the consonant
Gemination of the consonant
Diphthongisation of the vowel
The position of the stress marker - a non-IPA notation as the stress mark does not precede the stressed syllable in this case

With the conventional assumption that medial long consonants are ambisyllabic, all stressed syllables are thus "heavy". In unstressed syllables, the distinction is lost between and or between . With each successive post-stress syllable, the number of contrasting vowels decreases gradually with distance from the point of stress; at three syllables from stress, only and occur.
Swedish allows a rare type of cluster combining linquids, a consonantal jod and another consonnant. Finally this may be simplified by vocalisation or with a svarabhakti vowel.

Sample

The sample text is a reading of The [North Wind and the Sun]. The transcriptions are based on the section on Swedish found in The Handbook on the International Phonetic Association, in which a man in his forties from Stockholm is recorded reading out the traditional fable in a manner typical of Central Standard Swedish as spoken in his area. The broad transcription is phonemic, while the narrow is phonetic.

Swedish phonology

Vowels

Generalities

Pre- allophones

Lowering of

Diphthongisation

Example table

Consonants

Stops

Fricatives

Sonorants

Retroflexion

Prosody

Stress

Pitch accents

Phonotactics

Sample

Broad transcription

Narrow transcription

Orthographic version

General sources

Vowels

Consonants

Prosody

Miscellaneous