Western Neo-Aramaic
Western Neo-Aramaic, also referred to as Siryon, is a modern variety of the Western Aramaic branch consisting of three closely related dialects. Today, it is spoken by Christian and Muslim Arameans (Syriacs) in only two villages— Maaloula and Jubb'adin —in the Anti-Lebanon mountains of western Syria. Bakhʽa was vastly destroyed during the Syrian civil war and most of the community fled to other parts of Syria or Lebanon. Western Neo-Aramaic is believed to be the closest living language to the language of Jesus, whose first language, according to scholarly consensus, was Galilean Aramaic belonging to the Western branch as well; all other remaining Neo-Aramaic languages are Eastern Aramaic.
Distribution and history
Western Neo-Aramaic is the sole surviving remnant of the once extensive Western Aramaic-speaking area, which also included the Palestine region and Lebanon in the 7th century. It is now spoken exclusively by the inhabitants of Maaloula and Jubb'adin, about northeast of Damascus. The continuation of this little cluster of Aramaic in a sea of Arabic is partly due to the relative isolation of the villages and their close-knit Christian and Muslim communities.Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, there was a linguistic shift to Arabic for local Muslims and later for remaining Christians; Arabic displaced various Aramaic dialects, including Western Aramaic varieties, as the first language of the majority. Despite this, Western Aramaic appears to have survived for a relatively long time at least in some remote mountain villages in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. In fact, up until the 17th century, travelers in Lebanon still reported on several Aramaic-speaking villages. The villages of Deir Atiyah and Sadad were reported to have spoken Aramaic in the 1830s, and Ain al-Tinah likewise in the 1860s. The Austrian orientalist Alfred von Kremer claimed it was spoken in Qaryatayn in 1850, but the veracity of this account is questionable.
The dialect of Bakhʽa was the most conservative. Arabic less influenced it than the other dialects and retains some vocabulary that is obsolete in other dialects. The dialect of Jubb'adin changed the most. Arabic heavily influenced it and has a more developed phonology. The dialect of Maaloula is somewhere in between the two, but closer to that of Jubb'adin.
The cross-linguistic influence between Aramaic and Arabic has been mutual, as Syrian Arabic itself retains an Aramaic substratum. Similar to the Eastern Neo-Aramaic languages, Western Neo-Aramaic uses Kurdish loanwords unlike other Western Aramaic dialects, e. g. in their negation structure: "Čū ndōmex", meaning "I do not sleep" in the Maalouli dialect. These influences might indicate an older historical connection between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Aramaic speakers. Other strong linguistic influences on Western Neo-Aramaic include Akkadian during the Neo-Babylonian period, e. g. the names of the months: āšbaṭ, ōḏar, iyyar or agricultural terms such as nīra, sekkṯa, senta or nbūba.
As in most of the Levant before the introduction of Islam in the seventh century, the three villages were originally all Christian until the 18th century. Maaloula is the only village that retains a sizeable Melkite Christian population belonging to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and Melkite Greek Catholic Church; the inhabitants of Bakhʽa and Jubb’adin converted to Islam over the generations. However, the first Muslims were not native converts, but Arab families from Homs who were settled in the villages during the Ottoman era to monitor the Christian population. Maaloula glows in the pale blue wash with which houses are painted every year in honor of Mary, mother of Jesus.
Historical accounts, as documented by the French linguist Jean Parisot in 1898, suggest that the people of Maaloula and nearby areas claim to be descendants of migrants from the Sinjar region. According to their oral traditions, their ancestors embarked on a substantial migration in ancient times, driven by the challenges posed by the Muslim occupation of the northern part of Mesopotamia. Seeking refuge, they crossed the Euphrates and traversed the Palmyrene desert, eventually finding a lasting sanctuary among Western Aramaic-speaking communities in the highlands of eastern Syria. In Maaloula and the surrounding villages, the surname ”Sinjar“ is borne by some Christian and Muslim families.
All three remaining Western Neo-Aramaic dialects are facing critical endangerment as living languages. As with any village community in the 21st century, young residents are migrating into major cities like Damascus and Aleppo in search of better employment opportunities, thus forcing them into monolingual Arabic-speaking settings, in turn straining the opportunity to actively maintain Western Neo-Aramaic as a language of daily use. Nevertheless, the Syrian government provides support for teaching the language.
Unlike Syriac, which has a rich literary tradition, Western Neo-Aramaic was solely passed down orally for generations until 2006 and was unwritten. Since 2006, Maaloula has been home to an Aramaic language institute established by the Damascus University that teaches courses to keep the language alive. The institute's activities were suspended in 2010 amid concerns that the square Maalouli Aramaic alphabet used in the program, which was developed by the chairman of the language institute, George Rizkalla, resembled the square script of the Hebrew alphabet. Consequently, all signs featuring the square Maalouli script were taken down. The program stated that they would instead use the more distinct Syriac alphabet, although use of Maalouli square script has continued to some degree. Al Jazeera Arabic also broadcast a program about Western Neo-Aramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use.
In December 2016, during an Aramaic Singing Festival in Maaloula, a modified version of an older style of the Aramaic alphabet closer to the Phoenician alphabet was used for Western Neo-Aramaic. This script seems to be used as a true alphabet with letters to represent both consonants and vowels instead of the traditional system of the Aramaic alphabet where it is used as an abjad. A recently published book about the Maalouli Aramaic dialect also uses this script.
Aramaic Bible Translation has spent over a decade translating the Bible into Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic and recording audio for Portrait of Jesus. Rinyo, the Syriac language organization, has published ABT's content, developed by Kanusoft.com. On their website, the Book of Psalms and Portrait of Jesus are available in Western Neo-Aramaic using the Syriac Serta script. Additionally, a New Testament translation into Western Neo-Aramaic was completed in 2017 and is now accessible online.
An electronic speech corpus of Maalouli Western Neo-Aramaic has been available online since 2022.
Phonology
The phonology of Western Neo-Aramaic has developed quite differently from other Aramaic dialects/languages. The labial consonants of older Western Aramaic, and, have been retained in Bakhʽa and Maaloula while they have mostly collapsed to in Jubb'adin under influence from Arabic. The labial consonant pair has collapsed to in all three villages. Amongst dental consonants, the fricatives are retained while have become in most places and, while remaining a phoneme, has had its traditional position in Aramaic words replaced by in Bakhʽa, and in Maaloula and Jubb'adin. However, is the usual form for the relative particle in these two villages, with a variant, where Bakhʽa always uses. Among the velar consonants, the traditional voiced pair of has collapsed into, while /ɡ/ still remains a phoneme in some words. The unvoiced velar fricative,, is retained, but its plosive complement, while also remaining a distinct phoneme, has in its traditional positions in Aramaic words started to undergo palatalization. In Bakhʽa, the palatalization is hardly apparent; in Maaloula, it is more obvious, and often leads to ; in Jubb'adin, it has become, and has thus merged phonemically with the original positions of. The original uvular plosive,, has also moved forward in Western Neo-Aramaic. In Bakhʽa it has become a strongly post-velar plosive, and in Maaloula more lightly post-velar. In Jubb'adin, however, it has replaced the velar plosive, and become. Its phonology is strikingly similar to Arabic both being sister Semitic languages.Vowels
Western Neo-Aramaic has the following set of vowels:Alphabet
Square Maalouli alphabet
Square Maalouli alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic. Long vowels are transcribed with macrons and are written with mater lectionis + for /o/ and /u/, for /i/, which are also used at the end of a word if it ends with one of these vowels.| Maalouli letter | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hebrew letter | א | בּ | ב | גּ | ג | דּ | ד | ה | ו | ז | ח | ט | י | כּ ךּ | כ ך | ל | מ ם | נ ן | ס | ע | פּ ףּ | פ ף | צ ץ | ק | ר | שׁ | תּ | ת | ת |
| Latin letter/Transliteration | Aa, Ee, Ii, Oo, Uu Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū | Bb | Vv | Gg | Ġġ | Dd | Ḏḏ | Hh | Ww | Zz | Ḥḥ | Ṭṭ | Yy | Kk | H̱ẖ | Ll | Mm | Nn | Ss | Ҁҁ | Pp | Ff | Ṣṣ | Rr | Šš | Tt | Ṯṯ | Čč | |
| Pronunciation | ∅ | , | ~/ḳ/ |
Syriac and Arabic alphabet
Syriac and Arabic alphabet used for Western Neo-Aramaic.| Syriac letter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Arabic letter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pronunciation | , ∅ | ~/ḳ/ |
| Syriac letter | |||||
| Arabic letter | ـَ | ـِ | ـُ | ي | و |
| Pronunciation |
Alternate Aramaic alphabet
Characters of the script system similar to the Old Aramaic or Phoenician alphabet used occasionally for Western Neo-Aramaic with matching transliteration. The script is used as a true alphabet with distinct letters for all phonemes including vowels instead of the traditional abjad system with plosive-fricative pairs.| Letter | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Transliteration | b | ġ | ḏ | h | w | z | ḥ | ṭ | y | k | x | l | m | n | s | ʕ | p | f | ṣ | ḳ | r | š | t | ṯ | č | ž | ᶄ | ḏ̣ | ẓ | ' |
| Pronunciation | ~/ḳ/ | /kʲ/ |
Liturgical language and sample of Lord's Prayer
The Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo Neo-Aramaic, Classical Syriac and Hebrew.There are various versions of the Lord's Prayer in Western Neo-Aramaic, incorporating altered loanwords from several languages, notably Arabic: Šēḏa, yiṯkan, ġfurlēḥ & nġofrin, maḥiṭ and čaġribyōṯa.
Several decades ago, the Christian inhabitants of Maaloula began translating Christian prayers and texts into their vernacular Aramaic dialect, given that their actual liturgical languages are Arabic and Koine Greek.
Pastor Edward Robinson reported that his companion, Eli Smith, found several manuscripts in the Syriac language in Maaloula in 1834, but no one could read or understand them. Classical Syriac, the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, was utilized as the liturgical language by local Syriac Melkite Christians following the Byzantine rite. There was a compilation of Syriac manuscripts from the monasteries and churches of Maaloula. However, a notable portion of these manuscripts met destruction upon the directives of a bishop in the 19th century.
Miscellaneous words and sample phrases
| English | Western Neo-Aramaic |
| Hello/Peace | šlōma |
| Altar server | šammōša |
| Morning | ʕṣofra/emḥar |
| Mountain | ṭūra |
| Water | mōya |
| God | alō /ilōha |
| Sun | šimša |
| Mouth | femma |
| Head | rayša |
| Village | qriṯa |
| I swear | b'sliba |
| Nice | ḥalya |
| Here/Here it is | ḥōxa/ḥōxa hū |
| Liar | daklōna |
| After | bōṯar min |
| Son | ebra |
| Daughter | berča |
| Brother/Brothers | ḥōna/ḥunō, ḥunū |
| Sister | ḥōṯa |
| Donkey | ḥmōra |
| Tongue/Language | liššōna |
| Money | kiršō |
| Nation | ōmṯa |
| Year | ešna |
| Moon | ṣahra |
| King | malka |
| Earth | arʕa |
| Dove | yawna |
| Long live! | tiḥi! |
| Grave | qabra |
| Food | xōla |
| Uncle | ḏōḏa |
| Uncle | ḥōla |
| Aunt | ʕamṯa |
| Aunt | ḥōlča |
| Father | ōbu |
| Mother | emma |
| My mother | emmay |
| Grandfather | žetta |
| Grandmother | žičča |
| Way | tarba |
| Sea | yamma |
| Congratulations! | ibrex! |
| Aramean | sūray |
| Sky | šmōya/šmō |
| Who? | mōn? |
| Love | rḥmōṯa |
| Kiss | nōšqṯa |
| How are you? | ex čōb? /ex čiba? |
| Fast | ṣawma |
| Human | barnōša |
| Holy Spirit | ruḥa qutšō |
| Poison | samma |
| Sword | seyfa |
| Bone | ġerma |
| Blood | eḏma |
| Half | felka |
| Skin | ġelta |
| Hunger | xafna |
| Stone/Rock | xefa |
| Vineyard | xarma |
| Back | ḥaṣṣa |
| Goat | ʕezza |
| Lip | sefta |
| Chin/Beard | ḏeqna |
| Tooth/Crag | šenna |
| Past | zibnō |
| Queen | malkṯa |
| The little man | ġabrōna zʕōra |
| Peace to all of you | šlōma lxulḥun |
| Who is this? | mōn hanna? /mōn hōḏ? |
| I am Aramean and my language is Aramaic | ana sūray w liššōni siryōn |
| We are Arameans and our language is Aramaic | anaḥ suroy w liššonaḥ siryōn |
| Church | klēsya |
| Shirt | qameṣča |
| What's your name? | mō ušmax? /mō ušmiš |
| Dream | ḥelma |
| Old man | sōba |
Literature
- Arnold, Werner: Das Neuwestaramäische, 6 volumes. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden,
- * Volume 1: Texte aus Baxʿa, 1989, ISBN 3-447-02949-8,
- * Volume 2: Texte aus Ğubbʿadīn, 1990, ISBN 3-447-03051-8,
- * Volume 3: Volkskundliche Texte aus Maʿlūla, 1991, ISBN 3-447-03166-2,
- * Volume 4: Orale Literatur aus Maʿlūla, 1991, ISBN 3-447-03173-5,
- * Volume 5: Grammatik, 1990, ISBN 3-447-03099-2,
- * Volume 6: Wörterbuch, 2019, ISBN 978-3-447-10806-5,
- Arnold, Werner. 1990. New materials on Western Neo-Aramaic. In Wolfhart Heinrichs, Studies in Neo-Aramaic, 131–149. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press.
- Arnold, Werner. 2002. Neue Lieder aus Maʿlūla. In Werner Arnold & Hartmut Bobzin, „Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!” 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik. Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag., 31–52. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Arnold, Werner: Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-447-02910-2.
- Arnold, Werner. 2008. The begadkephat in Western Neo-Aramaic. In Geoffrey Khan, Neo-Aramaic dialect studies, 171–176. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463211615-011.
- Arnold, Werner. 2011. Western Neo-Aramaic. In Stefan Weninger, Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck & Janet C. E. Watson, The Semitic languages. An international handbook, 685–696. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110251586.685.
- Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1915. Neuaramäische Märchen und andere Texte aus Maʿlūla. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/publicdomain/content/titleinfo/857071.
- Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1918. Neue Texte im aramäischen Dialekt von Maʿlula. In Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, vol. 32, 103–163. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/titleinfo/118493.
- Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1928. Einführung in die semitischen Sprachen. Sprachproben und grammatische Skizzen. Munich: Max Hueber. https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/publicdomain/content/titleinfo/597992.
- Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1933. Phonogramme im neuaramäischen Dialekt von Malula. Satzdruck und Satzmelodie. Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
- Correll, Christoph. 1978. Untersuchungen zur Syntax der neuwestaramäischen Dialekte des Antilibanon: ; mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Auswirkungen arabischen Adstrateinflusses; nebst zwei Anhängen zum neuaramäischen Dialekt von ǦubbʿAdīn.. Wiesbaden: Steiner.
- Eid, Ghattas. 2024. The Phonology of Maaloula Aramaic. Düsseldorf: Düsseldorf University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111447124.
- Eid, Ghattas & Ingo Plag. 2024. Syllable structure and syllabification in Maaloula Aramaic. Lingua 297. 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2023.103612.
- Eid, Ghattas, Esther Seyffarth & Ingo Plag. 2022. The Maaloula Aramaic Speech Corpus : From printed material to a lemmatized and time-aligned corpus. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, 6513–6520. Marseille. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2022/pdf/2022.lrec-1.699.pdf.
- Reich, Sigismund. 1937. Études sur les villages araméens de l’Anti-Liban . Damascus: Institut Français de Damas.
- Spitaler, Anton. 1938. Grammatik des neuaramäischen Dialekts von Maʿlūla . Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus. http://dx.doi.org/10.25673/36802.
- Spitaler, Anton. 1957. Neue Materialien zum aramäischen Dialekt von Maʿlūla. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 107. 299–339.