Kru languages


The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.

Classification

According to Güldemann, Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo. Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.

Etymology

The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".

History

Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade". The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.

Current status

Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire". "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts". The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English or French as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons". The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood.

Subgroups and associated languages

The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.
Marchese's classification of Kru languages is as follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.

Grammar

Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object, but can also often be subject-object-verb.

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewatereatname
Tepojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ̂wũ̂tdâblώklátûgbɛ̀nîjẽ́dîdώ
Jrweɟrónω̃̂ã̂mɪ̃̂ã̂ɲɛ̃́mɛ̃̂wṹklώω̂klátúwɛ̀nĩ́ẽ́dîdɛ̂ɲɔ̃́
Guereɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃mē̃õ̀ŋɔ̄̃ɲmɔ̄̃kpâtūnídîɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnə̃̂mɛ̄̃õ̀ŋʷɔ̄̃nmɔ̄kpâtūnĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Niabouaɟîrîlòkûmánáɲéɲéméɛ̃̀ŋʷɔ̄̃ɲēmōkpátūnîdīɲéɲé
Bété (Daloa)ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdrúkwâsūɲûlíŋʉ̂nɪ̂
Bété (Guibéroua)jirijúkwɨ́límə́ɲə́gʌ̂lʌ̂mɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûrûkwásûɲúdīŋʉ́ɲɪ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēsūúɲúlījlɪ́
Godiéjɨdíɲūkúlúmə́ɲə́gə̄lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄drùféèsūɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Koyojɪjēɲúkiwí—glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēsūúɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dólūkwíjèsūɲúlîŋlɪ́
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪli—

An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonewatereatname
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekranrɪli
Vatajéɲêflúmênêglàmeɔ̄nɪ̄dūlūfâɲúlî
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dòlūkwíjèɲúlîŋlɪ́
Koyojíjēɲúkwlíŋʉ́nʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Godiéɲūkúlúmə́ňə́gə̀lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄dřùféèɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēɲúlījlɪ́
Bété (Guibéroua)jiřijúkwɨ́límə́ňə́gʌ̂lâmɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûřûkwáɲúlīnʉ́nɪ́
Bété (Daloa)ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdřúkwâɲúlínʉ̀nɪ̂
Niaboualòkûmə́náɲénéméɛ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄ɲēmōkpánîdīɲéné
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnẽ̂mɛ̄ɔ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄nmɔ̄kpânĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Guéréɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄mẽ̄õ̀ŋɔ̃̄ɲmɔ̃̄kpânídìɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Konobojidɔnaomlãmɛdaluoklaɲɛdiɲi
Oubijīrōnōāmēã̄ŋudòùlākalaɲɛ́dīdɛ̄ɲírṍ
Bakweɲʉ́ɲákúlúmňṍglɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́tùřúkɔ̄ōnēɟɨnrɪ
Tépojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ́dâblώklánîjẽ́dîdώ
Grebojênóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄ɲénɔ́klã́nĩ́díɲéné
Klaoɟínɔ̄kũ̀mnã́mɛ̄wɔ̃̄ɲnɔ̄kpã́nĩ́dīɲnɛ̃́
Bassaɟélémánámiɔwɔ̃̄nyɔmɔɔkpáníɗiŋɛ́nɛ́
Dewoingiremálã́mīlã̀wɔ̃̄ĩ́ɲimogbanízīŋɛ́lɛ́
Kuwaasĩ̌nɔiɲũmɛ̀wũwɔ̃̀tòyòkwanímíɟìɲɛlɛ̃
Sɛmɛɲatasjẽmarɲendɛkõtõkparnũdijĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
ClassificationLanguage12345678910
KuwaaKuwaa (Belleh)deesɔ̃rtãã̀ɲìjɛ̀hɛwàyɔ̀ɔwɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ kɔrlɔrɔ̃r kwatãã̀ kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ kowaa
SemeSeme (Siamou) byẽ́ẽnĩ́ĩ̄tyáāryūrkwɛ̃̄lkpã̄âkĩ̄îkprɛ̄n̂kɛ̄lfú
SemeSeme (Siamou) dyuɔ̃15nĩ15tyɛr15yur3kwɛ̃l3k͡pa4a34kyi4ĩ34k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34kal3fu1
Eastern, BakweBakwéɗôːsɔ̂ːtʌ̄ːmɾɔ̄ːɡ͡bə̀ə̄ŋǔːɗō ŋǔːsɔ̄ ŋǔːtʌ̄ ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ pʊ̀
Eastern, BakweWanédo³ / ɗo³sɔ²ta³ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ŋʷũ⁴²ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
Eastern, BeteDaloa Bétéɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, BeteGuiberoua Bétéɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, BeteGodiéɓlōōsɔ́ɔ́tāāŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nāŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Bete, EasternGagnoa Bétéɓɵ̯̀ɺōsɔ̋tɑ̄mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡búɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
Eastern, Bete, EasternGuébie Bétéɡ͡bɔlɔ².³so⁴ta³¹mɔna¹.³¹mŋɡ͡be²mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ kɔɡ͡ba².³
Eastern, Bete, EasternKouyaɓlòsɔ́tāmnʊ̀àɡ͡buɡ͡beliɓlò ɡ͡besɔ́ ɡ͡betā ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à kuɡ͡bua
Eastern, DidaYocoboué Didabólómwɔsɔ́mwɔtámwɔnáɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ ɛmɓáta ɛmvwanákóɡ͡ba
Eastern, DidaNeyoɓɔ̄lósɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāɡ͡bɪ́ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ ɡ͡básɔ́ ɡ͡bátā fɛ̄nā kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, KwadiaKodiaɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³²sɔː²taː²mɔna⁴³ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ kʊɡ͡ba³³
Western, BassaBassaɖò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩinyɛhm̀m̌mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ ɓaɖa-bùè
Western, BassaDewoin (Dewoi)ɡ͡bǒsɔ̃́tahĩinyɛhm̀m̌meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ meɖe-sɔ̃́ meɖe-ta meɖe-hĩinyɛ vù
Western, BassaGbasei (Gbii) dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱsɔ̃́tãɲ̀yɛ̃m̀ḿm̀mɽědɔ̀ m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ m̀mɽětã́ m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ báɽápʰùwe
Western, BassaGbii (Gbi-Dowlu) dòò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩ̀nyɛhm̀m̀mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ ɓaɖabùè
Western, Grebo, Glio-OubiGlio-Oubidōhwə̃tã́hə̃ɡ͡bə̀hṹdò hũ̀sɔ́ mɛra mɛ́ɲɛ̀ pue
Western, Grebo, IvorianPye (Piè) Krumendòhʋɛ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌hũ̀jārō hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ hũ̀jātā hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ pù
Western, Grebo, IvorianTepo Krumen dòhɔ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌huõ̀nɔ̀ nɪ́pātā nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ sēlédò pù
Western, Grebo, IvorianTepo Krumen dôɔ̄ɛ́ntāhɛ̀nùmùmnɔ̄dô ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n blɛ̄nbìɛ̀nùmīyándōpù
Western, Grebo, LiberianCentral Grebo (Barrobo)dòoɔ̌ntaanhɛ̃ɛnwùunwùnɔ̀dǒ jetan ?jiinhɛ̀n ?sǒndò fù
Western, Grebo, LiberianNorthern Grebodosɔ̃̌tãhɛ̃̀m̀mmmɔ̀do nyiɛtã nnyɛɛ siědo pù
Western, KlaoKlaodôsɔ́ntannyìɛ̀mùmùnéɛ́do mùnéɛ́sɔ́n mùnéɛtan sopádo puè
Western, KlaoTajuasohndoesunn nn = ?tanhinhoomḿhon doe ḿhon sunn hinin siɛrdoe punn
Western, Wee, Guere-KrahnWestern Krahntòòsɔɔ̌nta̓a̓nnyìɛ̓m̀m̌mɛ̀o̓ mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n mɛta̓a̓ǹ mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ pùèè
Western, Wee, Guere-KrahnSapoduě / tòòsɔntannyìɛm̀m̌mɛ̀lǒ mɛ̀sɔn mɛ̌tan mɛ̌nyiɛ pùè
Western, Wee, NyabwaNyabwa (Nyaboa)do4sɔ̃2tã3ɲiɛ33mu4u1mɛ4ɛ1lo4 mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 mɛ4ɛ1tã3 mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 bue44
Western, Wee, WobeNorthern Wè (Wobe)too3 / due1sɔɔn2 / sɔn2taan3nyiɛ43mm41mɛ41o3 mɛ41sɔn2 mɛ41na3 mɛ41nyiɛ3 puue3

Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguageonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightninetentwentyhundred
SiamouSemejɔnḭtʸaryirokʷḛkpaakʸiiprɛkalfukarkarkʷḛ
AiziAïzimṵmɔ̰; yreiʃɪitayeɓiyugbofɔfriʃipatɛfibɔgujuyugbo
KuwaaKuwaadeesɔ̰ɔ̰ta̰à̰ɲìyɛ̀wààyòfolɛ̀kɔ̰lo̰kʷata̰à̰ko̰yḭ̀yɛ̰̀kuwakuma sɔ̰᷄kɔ̀lɛwúlú
Eastern, BakweBakwé
Eastern, DidaDida mblòmɔ̀sɔ́mɔ̀tāmɔ̀ɔ̀nāǹgbīǹgbʊfɾʊǹgbɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ǹgbàátāǹvɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́gbāgrʊ̄gwlīǹgbī
Eastern, DidaVataɓlɔ̀sɔ̍tāmɔ̀ɔ̀nāgbe̍gbòɔ́sɔ́gbɔ̍fɔ́tākógba̍golō
Eastern, BeteBété ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ̍támʊ̀nàńgbɨ́ńgbʊ́pʊ́lʊ́ńgbísɔ̍ńgbɔ̍táńgbɨ́mʊ̀nàkúgbɨ́ágʊ́lʊ́gʊ́lúgbɨ́
Eastern, BeteBété ɓʊ̀lʊ̀sɔ́tāmʊ̀ʌ̀nān̄gbɨ́n̄gbʊ̍pʊ̍lʊ̍n̄gbi̍sógbʊ̀ʌ́tān̄gbɨ̍mʊ̀ʌ̀nākʊ̄gbʌ̍gʊ̍lʊ̍gʷʉ̍lɪ̍n̄gbɨ̍
Eastern, BeteGodiéɓʉ̄lʉ̄sɔ́tāmʊ̀ʊ̀nʌ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbʉ̄pʉ̄lʉ̄ʌ̰̀gbɔ̀ɔ̄sɔ́ʌ̰̀gbàāɨʌ̄pɛɛ̀nʌ̄kʊ́gbʌ̍gɔ̀lɔ̀gʷʌ̀lɪ̀gbʉ̄
Eastern, BeteKoyoɓɔ̄lɔ̄sɔ̄tāmɔ̀nāŋ̀gbɨ́ŋ̀gbóplóŋ̀gbɔ́sɔ́ŋ̀gbátāǹvɔ̀nākʊ́gbágʊ̄lʊ̄gʊ̀lɪ̀ɲ́gbɨ́
Eastern, BeteNéyoɓʊ̄lʊ́sɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāgbɪ́gbɪ́flɔ́gbásɔ́gbátāfɛ̄nākʊ́gbáglʊ́gʷlɪ̀gbɪ́
Western, KlaoKlaodòòsʊ̰́tā̰ā̰ɲḭɛ̀mùùŋmìɛ̀dòŋmìɛ̀sɔ̰́ŋmìɛ̀tā̰sɛpáádōpūɪ̄wlʊ̄wlʊ̄mù
Western, BassaBassadɔ̀òsɔ̄ta̰hḭiɲɛhm̀m̀hɔ̰́dɔ̀
Western, BassaDéwoingbòsɔ̰tà̰ɲìɛ̄m̀m̄mɛ̀legbōmɛ̀lēslɔ̰́mɛ̀lēá̰mɛ̀le̍ɲìɛèvù
Western, GreboTépodo̍hɔ̰́ta̍hɛ̰̀m̄hwɔ̰̀nɔ̀nɪ́pa̍hɔ̰̍nɪ́pa̍ta̍se̍rédópu̍a̍ wlʊ̀wlɪ̄ m̄
Western, GreboGrébodōsɔ̰́tá̰hɛ̰᷄hm̀úbéhɛ̰᷄sīe̍dōpūnɔ́dōwōdóhúbū
Western, GreboOubidōhʷə̰tá̰hə̰gbə̀hṵ́dòhṵ̀sɔ́mɛramɛ́ɲɛ̀puegōrōgòléhm̄
Western, GreboJrwedo̍òhʊ̰́ɛ̰́ta̍a̍hɛ̰̍ɛ̰̀hm̀m̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍rʊ̍hm̀m̍jɛ̍hʊ̰́ɛ̰́hm̀m̍ja̍ta̍hm̀m̍ja̍hɛ̰̀pu̍wlʊ̍wɛ̀srɛ̍wɛ̍
Western, WeeGuérédòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄ ~ ɲīɛ̄; ɲīɛ̄ ~ ɲḭ̀ɛ̰̄m̄ḿmɛ̰̄ɛ̰́ō̰mɛ̰̄sɔ̰̍mɛ̰̄á̰mɛ̰᷄ɲɛ̰̍bùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̰̍dūe̍
Western, WeeNyabwadʊ̀sɔ̰́tā̰ɲìɛ̄mùu̍mɛ̄ɛ̍lʊ̀mɛ̄ɛ̍sɔ̰̄mɛ̄ɛ̍tā̰mɛ̍ɲīēbùèglòlùéglàmùu̍
Western, WeeWobétòòsɔ̰̍ɔ̰̍tā̰ā̰ɲìɛ̄m̄ḿmɛ̄ɛ́ōmɛ̰̍́sɔ̰̍mɛ᷄na̍mɛ᷄ɲɛ̍pùùèkwlāsɔ̰̍km̄ɛ̍du̍e̍
Western, WeeKonobodʊbuwɛla̰a̰ɲiɛmmmɛɛɔ̰mɛlabuwɛkʷalaso̰kɛ̰ɛ̰

Body parts (head)

Parts of the head from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguageheadhaireyeearnosetoothtonguemouth
SiamouSemegmelfleɲiɲatasyḛmarɲendɛko̰
AiziAïzidrʊlɪfɪzrelʊkɔmʊvɔɲɪmrɔmu
KuwaaKuwaawúlúdùisḭ̌nɔiɲṵmɛ̀wṵwɔ̰̀
Eastern, BakweBakwé wlíɲweeɲʉ́ɲákúlúml̰ó̰glɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́
Eastern, DidaDida wlúɲɪ̄cíɲūklwímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄
Eastern, DidaVataɲe̍yéɲe̍flúme̍ne̍glàmeɔ̄nɪ̄
Eastern, BeteBété wu̍lu̍kpèlèɲúkōjiyu̍ku̍li̍mlə̍gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋō
Eastern, BeteBété wúkpə̀léɲū-kʷə̄yiɾiyúkʷɨ́límə́l̰ə́gʌ̍la̍mɪ̄ɔ̄nu̍ə̍
Eastern, BeteGodiéwúlúɲɪ̄yɨdíɲūkúlúmə́l̰ə́gə̄lèmɪɔ̄nə̄
Eastern, BeteKoyowúlúɲɪ́īyɪ́yēɲūklwíŋʉ́ŋʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́
Eastern, BeteNéyoɲɪ́yɪ́ɲúkʷlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄né
Western, KlaoKlaodlo᷄nūi᷄jinɔ̄kṵ̀mna᷄mɛ̄wɔ̰̄
Western, BassaBassadúmídyéɖéɖùǔmánányɛ́nɛ́mɔwɔ̰
Western, BassaDéwoindúlúgiremálá̰mīlà̰wɔ̰̄ḭ́
Western, GreboTépolúlú púpu̍yíe̍nʊ̍a̍mɪ̍yá̰ɲɛ́mɛ̍ ~ mé; mé ~ mɛ̍wṵ̍t
Western, GreboGrébolu᷄ye̍nóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄
Western, GreboOubimiyīrōnōāmēā̰ŋu
Western, GreboJrwelélé ɲà̰ɛ̰̍jrónʊ̰̍a̰̍mɪ̰̍a̰̍ɲɛ̰́mɛ̰̍wṵ́
Western, WeeGuérédrúmíījrííēdōṵ́ɓʊ̄djūlɛ̀mɛ̰̄ò̰ŋɔ̰̄
Western, WeeNyabwadru̍nɪ́mə̀ǹèyíɾi̍lòku̍mə́náɲénéméɛ̰̀ŋwɔ̰̄
Western, WeeWobéjrúmḛ́ḛ̄ ~ me; me ~ mḛ́ḛ̄jríɛ́dōṵ́mla̰̍ɲnḛ̍mɛ̰̍ɔ̰̀ŋwɔ̰̄
Western, WeeKonobodrɔmiyidɔnaomla̰mɛ

Body parts (lower)

Other body parts from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguageneckarmbreastintestinesnavellegbonebloodskin
SiamouSemekʷa̰bɔnʷḛɲēfūkparto̰
AiziAïzivusʊdrɪmɪmʊkʊpɪkraɲrekʊkɔ
KuwaaKuwaafɛ̀lɛɲàlìsḭyà̰bɔ̰̀kʷato̍yòkṵ᷆
Eastern, BakweBakwé plidáɾóɲɪ̄tɪ̄mīmʊ̰̄kʷɛ̄ɓɔōkɔ̄ōtùɾú
Eastern, DidaDida brɪ̀ ~ bɾɪ̀; bɾɪ̀ ~ brɪ̀sɔ̄ɲētīmɪ̄mʊ́kʊ̄díèɓōkwíyèdòlūkpʊ̄kpā
Eastern, DidaVatasɔ̄me̍mókɔ̍lɛ̍ɓɔ̄gʊ̀fa̍dūlūfu̍
Eastern, BeteBété blʊ̀sɔ́ɲɪ́tɪ́wɪ̍dàīɓʊ́kwa̍dɾú
Eastern, BeteBété bʊ̀lʊ́sɔ̍ɲɪ̄tɪ̄mɪ́dàyīɓʊ̍kʷádu̍ɾu̍ku̍
Eastern, BeteGodiébʌlɛ̄sɔ̄ɲītìmɪ́dèèɓʉ̄féèdɾùkpʊ̄kpʌ
Eastern, BeteKoyoblɛ̀sɔ̄ɔ̄ɲītīyēmɪ́mákɔ̄lʊ́gbāɓɔ̄ɔ́féyēdòlú
Eastern, BeteNéyoblɛ̄sɔ̄ɔ́mɔ́gbàlɪ̄ɲúkōlíéɓɔ̄ɔ́féēdòlūkpʊ̄kpā
Western, KlaoKlaopnu᷄sʊ̰̄ɲītīmɔ̄ɛ᷄pùtùbʊ̄kpa᷄ɲnɔ̄kū
Western, BassaBassabùnùsɔ̃nɛɛ̀mɛ́zììɓokpányɔmɔɔku
Western, BassaDéwoinbūnūnḛɓōgbaɲimo
Western, GreboTépoplʊ̀da̍bʊ́nɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ ɲɛ̍yɛ̍; ɲɛ̍yɛ̍ ~ nɛ̍yɛ̍ŋmínɛ́ɛ́ ~ nɛ́; nɛ́ ~ nɛ́ɛ́bʊ̍kláda̍blʊ́kɔ̀ ~ kɔ̍; kɔ̍ ~ kɔ̀
Western, GreboGréboplo᷄só̰ɲínēkúdíde̍no̍na᷄bókla᷄ɲénɔ́-
Western, GreboOubipòlòho̰muə̄glinə̰bokaladòùlā
Western, GreboJrweplʊ̀hʊ̰̍ɲɛ̰̍sɛ̍nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍bʊ̍kláklʊ́ʊ̍kɔ̀
Western, WeeGuéréblṵ̄sō̰ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀mḛ̍ɓóàbʊ̍kpa̍ɲmɔ̰̄kū
Western, WeeNyabwabūlūsʊ̄ɲētìɛ̀mézànɛ̍ɛ̍ɓʊ̄kpáɲēmōkù
Western, WeeWobéplṵ̀sō̰ɲḛ̄ɛ̰̀mḛ̍sɛ̰̀ ɲɛ̀bʊ̄kpa̍nmɔ̄kū
Western, WeeKonobosʊɲiniɛgbolobokladaluo

Other nouns

Miscellaneous nouns from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguagesnakeegghorntailropefathermotherwomanchildname
SiamouSemejàlkʸḛbīɲantɔyɔmelɓisyāy̰i
AiziAïzisrɪjigbeligɛtɛzuzokekelapɛjɪ
KuwaaKuwaagbɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀kɛ̀ɛ̀mɛ̀kṵ̌béɲídewúlédòyònuɲinɔ̀jíɲɛlɛ̰
Eastern, BakweBakwé tɾɔ̄sàpɨ́gētōyuoŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́yəyieɲrɪ
Eastern, DidaDida trɛ̄jīègwɪ́gūòɓlūto̍nɔ́ŋwnɔ́cíle̍ŋlɪ́
Eastern, DidaVatatlɛ̄gì ~ jìvɔ́ɛ̍co̍nɔ́ŋɔnɔ́lo̍
Eastern, BeteBété tɪ́mɛ́gʉyīgɔ̍li̍kpə́tɓàdàŋɔ́nɔ̍gu̍ŋʉ̍nɪ̍
Eastern, BeteBété ti̍mɛ̍gʉ̄gʊ́gʷə̀yi̍díkpə̍dɪ̄bàdàŋɔ́ɾɔ́yúŋʉ́l̰ɪ́
Eastern, BeteGodiétrɛ̄gɪ̀vɪ̄gə̀ɓɨlɨ́kpə̄tʉ́dàŋʷɔ́l̰ɔ́yɪ́ŋʉ́nʉ́
Eastern, BeteKoyomiɛ̄bòlúgɪ̀yēgóɓlíyēbánɔ́ŋɔ́nɔ́yóŋɨ́nɨ́
Eastern, BeteNéyotlɛ̄gèvʊ́ɓlútʊ́nɛ́ŋʷló̰yʊ́ylɪ́
Western, KlaoKlaoslɛ̄ɲɛ᷆ŋmo̰᷆wʊ̰᷆dlu᷄ ~ dbu᷄mi᷄déɲnɔ᷄jēgbéɲnɛ᷄
Western, BassaBassasɛgɛ̃̀gmɛ̌vɔ̃ɖúúɓàɖemàadyúŋɛ́nɛ́
Western, BassaDéwoinsɛ̄wɛ̄geɓùlūɓa̍ma᷅ɲiro; ŋɔ́nɔ́wúŋɛ́lɛ́
Western, GreboTépohre̍ŋɔ̀ŋmʊ̄bàpátàbu̍díí ~ dí; dí ~ dííɲnɔ̍gbáyúdʊ́
Western, GreboGrébosídéŋēyēlúdu̍bu̍o̍de᷄ɲénɛ́hḛ̍a̰̍ɲéné
Western, GreboOubiherehawɛŋɨ̰nɛŋʷɛ̰bawūlūbuidiɲīrō̰yuɲíró̰
Western, GreboJrwehre̍ɲɔ̰́lòdo̍e̍bàlúrūbódénɔ̰̍wáyúɲl̰ɔ̰́
Western, WeeGuérésɛ̰̄sō̰a̰̍ gɛ̄ŋm̄ɔ̰̍gō̰dbúbādo̍ūjú zá̰à̰ɓāòɲnɪ̰̍
Western, WeeNyabwasɛ̰̄sò̰o̰̍ gḛ̄ɛ̰̄gbó̰gō̰ɓlu̍kūtètalótōɲə́nɔ́yu̍ɲéné
Western, WeeWobésɛ̰̄so̰᷄kɛ̰̀ɛ̰̀ŋmɛ̀ko̰᷅dbū ~ dbú; dbú ~ dbūbódēɲnɔ̍ kpāo̍jú sǎ̰ā̰ɲnḛ̍
Western, WeeKonobosɛrɛɲiegbogʷodrubadeɲɪnɪjoweɲi

Nature

Nature-related words from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguagedaysunmoonwaterfirefogseadustsalt
SiamouSemeyefʸɛyefʷǒnṵniɛ
AiziAïzizizecunrɪledejrumagriɓʊɓʊtrʊ
KuwaaKuwaakùlùkàlàkewunímíka̰᷆koojiwolowokìyɔ̀
Eastern, BakweBakwé srèjrósɨplenēkāpūbrutánīēmɔ̰l̰ɔ̰
Eastern, DidaDida cɾɪ̄ylʊ́cʊ́ɲúkòsūjlūjḭ̄yēpipiglī
Eastern, DidaVatacʊ̍ɲúkōsūjɛ̰́vie̍ŋúŋu̍
Eastern, BeteBété yɪ̍ɾɪ̍yʊ̍ɾʊ̍zàrʊ́na̍pɛ́ɲu̍kòsūgbi̍ɾu̍gɨ-ɲɛ̄ɓu̍kúgʉ́ɓɨ́
Eastern, BeteBété yɪ́ɾɪ́yʊ́ɾʊ́cʊ́ɲúkòsūju̍ɾu̍jīēɓūù-kʷə̍gɨ̍ɓɨ̍
Eastern, BeteGodiéyʊ̀ɾʊ̀yʊɾʊ́cʊ̄ɲúkòsūjùɾùjīyēɓàɓùūgɨ̀ɗɨ̀
Eastern, BeteKoyoyʊ́rʊ́yʊ́rʊ́cʊ́ʊ̄ɲúkòsūjùrùjīyēɓūɓúgʉ̀lʉ̀
Eastern, BeteNéyozlìylʊ́cʊ́ɲúkōsūjlùgɨ̄ēmʊ̍mʷɪ̄ɪ́gūu̍
Western, KlaoKlaoylʊ᷄cʊ̄ni᷄nɛjlu᷄jlōpūpūíto̰᷄
Western, BassaBassawédyóɖódɛ̀nɛ̀nínyɛdunudyóópúutɔ̃́
Western, BassaDéwoinwégúsònínàìtó̰
Western, GreboTépoɲnɔ̀wo̍yrʊ́hɔ̀pɔ̍ni̍yḛ́na̍jrùyrúpúpu̍tá
Western, GreboGréboŋwɛ́hɔ̀bōni᷄nájūdúyúdápúíbi̍ta᷄
Western, GreboOubiɲìrò̰jīrōhɔ̰liɛɲɛ́nàníjùrùtápɛ̀múlɔ̰̀
Western, Greboɲl̰ɔ̰̀wòjrʊ́hóóònḭ́ḛ́na̰̍jrùti̍e̍púwòtá
Western, WeeGuéréwɪ̍jru̍cʊ̍nínɛ̰̄wɛ̍ìto̰̍nīdjɛ̄ɛ̀tɔ̰̍
Western, WeeNyabwawɪ́yórócʊ́ni̍nɛ̄jurūgɨ̄ɨ̄pīpèlètɔ̰̄
Western, WeeWobéwɪ̍jru̍cʊ̍nḭ́nɛ̰̄cnṵ̄to̰̍nīpu̍ētɔ̰̍
Western, WeeKonobowɔ̰jɨdocoɲɛnanijluyoomulota

Verbs (1)

Some basic verbs from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguageeatdrinkbitevomitdiekillwalkcome
SiamouSemedinamunuo̰kokokoelbɛ
AiziAïzilimacɛgʷrakɔyranayi
KuwaaKuwaajìgbɛɲìmìkɔ̀jɛ̀fa̰la̰javanamuyì
Eastern, BakweBakwé jɨml̰áàml̰uwɔsɔjʌɓláɲɛ́jī
Eastern, DidaDida ti̍mlámni̍gɔ̍zɛ̄kúɓlánámʊ̍ci̍
Eastern, DidaVatali̍nia̍nlɪ̍ɓeɔ̀fúnánɪ́yi̍
Eastern, BeteBété līnɪ̍ma̍nɨ́mɨ́mə́tītɾɪlɪ̍ɓa̍námʉ́jí
Eastern, BeteBété dīnɪ́mʌ́nīmɨ̄mə́tīkúlɪ́bʌ́nɛ̍mʉ̍yī
Eastern, BeteGodiéɗɨ̄mʌ́nʌ́mɨ̄l̰ɨ̄gʷʌ̄sɛ̀kúɓʌ́lʌ́nʌ́ʌ̄yī
Eastern, BeteKoyolɨ̄ḿlámiɨ̄gɔ̄sɛ̀kúɓláná̰à̰yī
Eastern, BeteNéyolīmlámiīgɔ̄zɪ̀ɔ̀kúɓla̍nāàyī
Western, KlaoKlaodīna᷄nmīwlàmɛ᷄dla᷄ ~ dba᷄na᷆jí
Western, BassaBassaɖinánumuhwaɖamɛ́ɖáɓánàdyi
Western, BassaDéwoinzīnákuta̰; láwáyi
Western, GreboTépodi̍náne̍wlàkʊ́lá ~ la̍; la̍ ~ lánàdi̍ré
Western, GreboGrébodína᷄mlíwōdákōdí
Western, GreboOubidīdɛ̄náwɔ̀làkʊwɔlɔnadó
Western, GreboJrwedi̍dɛ̍ná̰nɛ̰́ɛ̰̍wlàla̍na̰̍di̍rè
Western, WeeGuérédjréèna̍nmūgwlàɗrēdbāna̰᷆jī
Western, WeeNyabwadīnánūmūgəlāgəlálə́ɓánàyī
Western, WeeWobédīna̍nmūkẁlāmɛ̍dba̍na᷆jī
Western, WeeKonobodinawlaawɔgulamɛdranajlo

Verbs (2)

Other basic verbs from Marchese :
ClassificationLanguagegivedigsleeppushshootsing
SiamouSemekḛ; kla̰dɛ; latuturgʸai ɲḛ
AiziAïziɲɛɓrumɔ namʊtugbi
KuwaaKuwaanìbííwa̰nito᷆kòìfa᷆doyo
Eastern, BakweBakwé ɲemúmɔ̀kʷɛ́ɛ̀
Eastern, DidaDida ɲɛ́ɓlíŋɔ̄mʊ̄sújri̍ ~ jɾi̍ɓlɪ̄
Eastern, DidaVataɓlíɲɔ́nɔ̍súsue̍ɓlɪ̍
Eastern, BeteBété ɲɛ̍wlùŋɔ́mʉ́súnʊ̄tɪ̍tɾɪ́blɪ̄
Eastern, Beteɲɛ́ɓúlúŋʌ̍mʉ̍súnɪ̄jiɾi ~ jīɾiɓʉ̄lɪ̄
Eastern, BeteGodiéɲɛ́ɓɨ́dɨ́ŋʷɔ́ɔ̄sújriɓʉ̄lɪ̄
Eastern, BeteKoyoɲɛ́ɓlʉ́lʉ́ŋɔ́ɔ̀zɛ́jrɨ̄ɓlɪ̄
Eastern, BeteNéyoɲɛ́wlúūŋɔ̄sújri ~ jrīɓlɪ̄
Western, KlaoKlaoɲîblu᷄tṵ᷄jlìblē
Western, BassaBassanyíɓúɖúmɔ́ ; nyíɔcṹpòìnɓeɖe
Western, BassaDéwoingḭ́ɓúlúnɔ́sṵ́gbīɓēlē
Western, GreboTépoɲègblúŋmòtúe̍bre̍
Western, GreboGrébohḭ᷄búdúmóɔ́tṵ̄blé
Western, GreboOubiɲébúlúiroŋmo̰tūɛ̄gìrɛ̀lɔ́bəlɛ
Western, GreboJrweɲɛ̰̀blúŋmḛ̍túbre̍wlà
Western, WeeGuéréjéɓlúmo̰̍tṵ́ble̍
Western, WeeNyabwaɲe̍mbulu̍mó̰tūùjīrīɓlē
Western, WeeWobéɲḛ̍blúmo̰̍pōcrḭḭa̍ ~ crīīa̍ble̍
Western, WeeKonoboyeblomotuijidiɛble

Reconstruction

According to Marchese Zogbo, Proto-Kru had:
  • phonemic nasalized vowels
  • four level tones
  • *CVCV-V and probably *CVV syllable structure. *CCV syllables, and possibly also *CVV syllables, are derived from *CVCV roots.
  • SVO word order, but with much OV typology
  • suffixing morphology
  • perfective and imperfective aspects
Proto-Kru consonants :
ptkkp
bdggb
ɓ
mnŋ
s
lw

Derived consonants:
  • /ɟ/ is likely derived via palatalization, e.g. *gie > ɟie.
  • *c, *ɲ, *kʷ, *gʷ, *ŋʷ are derived from alveolar or velar consonants preceding high back or high front vowels.
  • /ɗ/ is likely derived from *l.
Proto-Kru vowels :
There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:
GlossProto-Western KruProto-Eastern Kru
tree*tu*su
dog*gbe*gwɪ
fire*nɛ*kosu
tooth*ɲnɪ*gle