Vateria indica
Vateria indica, the white dammar, is a species of tree in the family Dipterocarpaceae. It is endemic to the Western Ghats mountains in India. It is threatened by habitat loss. It is a large canopy or emergent tree frequent in tropical wet evergreen forests of the low and mid-elevations.
Description
Shape, trunk, and bark
Evergreen trees with cylindrical, straight boles, growing up to 40 m tall, occasionally up to 60 m. In evergreen forests, the trees can grow to large girth, with an individual reaching up to 5.26 m in girth recorded in Kodagu. The bark is smooth, grey with green and white blotches on the trunk and a cream colored blaze. On scarring, it exudes a white, aromatic resin. The tree has dense foliage in an oval or dome-like canopy. The young branchlets are nearly cylindrical and have stellate hairs.Leaves
The leaves, which are simple, alternate, and arranged in a spiral around the twigs, are leathery, about 8-27 x 4.5–10 cm in size, glabrous, elliptic-oblong, with a short pointed tip, rounded base, and entire margin. The young leaf flush is a dark red or maroon, turning to pinkish red and green as the leaf matures. The petioles are 2 to 3.5 cm long, swollen at apex, and nearly glabrous, with narrow lateral stipules that fall off. The venation of the leaves comprises 13 to 20 pairs of secondary nerves, with closely parallel tertiary nerves at right angles to the secondaries.Flower, fruit and seed
The inflorescence appears in axillary panicles densely clothed in stellate hairs. The flowers are white, fragrant, about 2 cm across, with 5 petals, about 40-50 stamens and yellow anthers, with a columnar style that protrudes beyond the anthers. The fruit is a 3-valved capsule, brown, and oblong or egg-shaped, about 6.4 x 3.8 cm in size. The base of the fruit has the persistent remains of the calyx with the 5 sepals curved back. The ovary is 3-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell, but the fruit typically produces a single seed with large cotyledons. The average weight of the mature fruit is 72.6 g; the fruit has a thick and hard pericarp and bulky cotyledons weighing about 13.2 g.Taxonomy
Vateria malabarica Blume is a Synonym of Vateria indica L. The genus Vateria has three species with accepted names, of which Vateria indica and Vateria macrocarpa occur in India and Vateria copallifera occurs in Sri Lanka. Vateria indica has smaller leaves, shorter petiole, and oblong fruit compared to Vateria macrocarpa that has larger leaves, longer petiole, and ovoid or oblong fruit with pointed, often curved tip.Studies indicate the species has a mitotic chromosome number of 2n=22. Polymorphic microsatellite markers have been identified for Vateria indica and the species has an expected heterozygosity of 0.44 to 0.84.
Common names
The species has a number of common names in local languages.Tamil: Dhupa maram தூப மரம், Painimaram பைனிமரம், Vellaikundrikam வெள்ளைகுன்றிகம், Vellaidamar வெள்ளை டமார், Vellai kungiliyam வெள்ளை குங்கிலியம், turulakkam துருளக்கம், vellai kunkiliyam வெள்ளைக்குங்கிலியம்
Malayalam: കുന്തിരിക്കപ്പൈന് Kuntirikkappayin, പയിനി Paini, വെള്ളപ്പൈന് Vellappayin, Baine, Kunturukkam, Paenoe, Paine, Paini, Payan, Payani, Payin, Pandam, Pantam, Peini, Perumpayani, Perumpiney, Pine, Piny, Pyney, Telli, Thelli, Vella kunturukkum, Vellapayin, Vellakondricum, Velutta kunturukkam, ബൈനെ, കുന്തുരുക്കും, പൈനോയ്, പൈനെ, പൈനി, പയന്, പയിനി, പയിന്, പഞ്ഞം, പീനി, പെരുംപയിണി, പൈനെയ്, തെള്ളി, വെളള കുന്തിരി
Kannada: ಬಿಳಿ ಡಾವರು Bili Daamaru, ಬಿಳಿ ಧೂಪ Bili Dhupa, ಧೂಪದ ಮರ Dhupada Mara, Bilagaggala, Dhupa mara, Gugli, Hugadamara, Rala, Velthapaini
Telugu: తెల్లగుగ్గిలము tellaguggilamu
Marathi: चंद्रुस chandrusa
Odia: ମନ୍ଦଧୂପ mandadhupa, ସନ୍ଦରସ sandarasa
Sanskrit: सर्जकः sarjakah
English: Indian copal tree, Piney varnish tree, White dammar
Distribution and habitat
The species is endemic to the Western Ghats mountain range in India, in the southern and central region, from the Agasthyamalai Hills in the south to southern Maharashtra. It chiefly occurs in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The species occurs in evergreen forests from the coastal plains and foothills usually up to an elevation of about 760 m, or to 800 m on the windward side of the Western Ghats in Karnataka. Although it is more common in lower elevations, trees may be found up to an elevation of 1200 m.Outside forests, the tree is found as avenue trees along roadsides in some areas. In Karnataka, the species does not occur in Uttara Kannada district, but was introduced by the Sonda Kinds about 500 years ago and planted along the roadsides in Sirsi, Siddapur, and Yellapur towns. It was planted extensively as an avenue tree in Dakshina Kannada and the Malabar and Travancore regions of Kerala.
Climatic factors
Within its distributional range, Vateria indica occurs in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 2000 to 3000 mm and a mean annual temperature slightly over 27 °C. The number of rainy days varies from 118 to 130 with a mean annual humidity of 77-79% within the zone of distribution.Geology, soil, and topography
Vateria indica occurs in areas where the underlying rock is a gneissic complex, often laminated, which may be covered by laterite 9–10 m deep. The laterite may be in stages of disintegration from hard rock to fine gravel. Typically the trees occur in forests with a thick layer of humus on the surface. The trees are also found in lowland and plateau locations, but mostly occur along well-drained river banks and valleys in humid, moist forest tracts. Valleys with deep sandy soil and high water table support Vateria indica dominated forests at lower elevations. The trees also occur in Myristica swamp forests in Kerala and Karnataka.Ecology
Flowering and pollination
Vateria indica is bee-pollinated. Vateria indica trees in Sringeri in the central Western Ghats flower profusely from late January to early May. The trees flower in alternate years with a mast event occurring every fourth year. The flowers, which open during the day and last only one day, attract generalist nectarivores and pollinators. They are regularly visited by social bees such as Asian honey bee and giant honey bee, and more occasionally by other bees such as Lasioglossum, Ceratina, Tetragonula iridipennis, Xylocopa latipes, Xylocopa rufescens, and Xylocopa verticalis.Fruiting and germination
The trees mainly fruit during the south-west monsoon months between July and September, with fruit fall occurring during periods of downpour towards the end of the monsoon. On the trees, fruits may sometimes show an emerged radicle, indicating vivipary. There is no dormancy as the seeds germinate within 1 to 6 days after they fall, retaining the bulky cotyledons for over one week. A study in Sringeri forests, found that seed germination and seedling growth is affected by seed predators and insect herbivores, particularly the latter. In this area, about 91% fruits were attacked by a curculionid weevil and a scolytid beetle, with eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of both predators seen in infected fruits. Nevertheless, seed predation, as determined by damage to the growing plumule was low, seen in only 11% of fruits. The weevil was mainly found in the fibrous pericarp about half the time or in the cotyledons, and less often in the plumule. The scolytid borer mostly targeted the cotyledon and minimally affected the fruit pericarp. While cotyledon attacks did not kill seedlings, plumule-infestation led to mortality of seedlings. Insect herbivores killed around 45% of the seedlings. Two species of sap-sucking ants, a leaf-miner of the Dipteran fly family Tipulidae, and the larvae of a Lymantrid moth were the main seedling herbivores, with herbivory by the latter two taxa often leading to seedling mortality. No vertebrate seed predators or dispersers have been recordedPlant associations
Low-elevation wet forests of the Western Ghats tend to be dominated by dipterocarps, particularly Vateria indica and Dipterocarpus indicus. In the Uppangala forest in Karnataka, Vateria indica is the dominant tree accounting for about 17% of the trees and 29% of the basal area, followed by other species such as Myristica dactyloides, Humboldtia brunonis, and Dipterocarpus indicus.In Myristica swamp forests in Kerala, they occur with other trees such as Myristica fatua var. magnifica and Syzygium travancoricum, understorey vegetation including Ochlandra bamboos, Pandanus screw pines, and species of aroids, Acanthaceae, and gingers. In Myristica swamps of Karnataka, Vateria indica occurs in forests dominated by trees such as Gymnacranthera farquhariana, ''Myristica fatua var. magnifica, Mastixia arborea, the dipterocarp Hopea ponga, and the palm Pinanga dicksonii''.
Fungal associations
In the Western Ghats, Vateria indica trees are associated with a number of ectomycorrhizal fungi including Pisolithus indicus and the edible macrofungi Russula adusta and R. atropurpurea. Fungal endophytes also occur in the bark and twigs of Vateria indica. Species such as Coniothyrium sp., along with species of Acremonium, Aspergillus, Colletotrichum, and Penicillium have been reported.Uses
Vateria indica wood has been used for making tea-chests, partitions, packing and cordite cases, coffins, boxes, planking, posts, floorings, ceilings, and cabinets, besides bobbins and shuttles in the textile industry, oars for sea-going vessels, and match-splints Large amounts of Vateria indica timber were shipped from the Malabar region to Bombay to be sold as "Malabar White Pine", with around 6200 tons of timber used per annum in the late 1960s. The wood, after preservative treatment, was also used for railway sleepers.Resin of Vateria indica, extracted by scratching the tree's bark, is called white dammar, also known as "Malabar fallow", "dhupa fat", "Indian Copal", or "piney resin". It is used as incense in India, for incense sticks, and to manufacture candles and soaps. From dried kernels, a fat called "piney tallow" was extracted, which was used to adulterate ghee, making candles and soaps, to treat chronic rheumatism, and for sizing cotton yarn in place of animal tallow. The resin mixed with coconut oil makes an excellent varnish resembling copal. The bark, resin, and leaves are used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani, and folk medicine for the treatment of leprosy, eczema, rheumatism, diarrhoea, and ulcers. Fine shavings of resin are administered internally to check diarrhoea. Vateria indica oil, produced from the seeds, is refined to yield a fat used in confectionery and cosmetics.